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A   NEW  CHEMISTRY 

Vivian's  Everyday   Chemistry 

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TEACHERS  COLLEGE 
RECORD 

Vol.  XXI  March,  1920  No.  2 


Contents 


Vitamines  and  Babies WALTER  H.  EDDY      99 

Implications  for  Elementary  Education  from  Experiments  in 
Democratizing  Industry FREDERICK  G.  BONSER     108 

Why  High  School  Principals  Succeed  and  Why  They  Fail 

ALBERT  B.  MEREDITH     117 

How  to  Compute  the  Median WILLIAM  A.  McCALL    124 

Teaching  Through  the  Use  of  Projects  or  Purposeful  Ad 

STUART  A  J  COURTIS    139 


Bibliography  of  the  Project  Method JOHN  P.  HERRING    150 


COLLEGE  NEWS  AND  DEPARTMENTAL  NOTES ,.   T  /  .    .  3.    .  ^  175 

Trustees — Educational  Administration — Educational  *l?sycholfcgy  ;  r  % 
— Fine  Arts — Foods  and  Cookery — Household  arid  Institution 
Administration — Household  Economics — Mathematics — Modern 
Languages — Recreational  Leadership — Secondary  Education — 
Textiles  and  Clothing — Horace  Mann  School — Teachers  College 
Country  Club — The  Administration  Club. 

ALUMNI  ACTIVITIES 188 

The  Endowment  Campaign — New  Officers  of  the  Alumni  Associa- 
tion— Dr.  Graves'  Elected  Alumni  Trustee — Annual  Alumni 
Conferences — Annual  Teachers  College  Festival — Teachers  Col- 
lege Dinner  in  Cleveland — Toledo  Teachers  College  Club — 
Dr.  OBrien's  Study  of  High  School  Failures — Recent  Alumni 
Appointments. 


;rr    D^rT* 

MAIN 


TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD 

VOL.  XXI  MARCH,  1920  No.  2 

VITAMINES  AND  BABIES 

By  WALTER  H.  EDDY,  PH.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Physiological  Chemistry,  Teachers  College 

Since  the  discovery  of  the  food  factors  which  Casimir  Funk 
named  vitamines  in  1911,  there  has  been  a  progressive  interest  in 
these  substances  and  in  some  cases  a  hysterical  exaggeration  of 
their  importance  that  is  hardly  justified  by  the  evidence  available. 
The  true  importance  of  these  substances  and  their  relation  to 
matters  of  diet  are  in  fact  most  imperfectly  established  in  the 
minds  of  their  closest  students  to-day  and  much  remains  to  be 
done  before  anyone  can  speak  dogmatically  about  any  phase  of 
the  subject. 

Before  discussing  the  particular  topic  selected  for  this  article 
let  us  consider  briefly  some  of  the  few  facts  that  have  been  estab- 
lished in  regard  to  them. 

Historically,  their  study  dates  from  Funk's  christening  in  1911 
when  the  name  he  devised  was  applied  to  a  substance  found  in 
rice  polishings  and  in  yeast  which  cured  a  peculiar  disease  known 
as  polyneuritis  or  beri-beri.  In  the  Far  East,  where  rice  forms  so 
important  a  staple  of  diet,  medical  men  were  puzzled  by  the  wide- 
spread development  of  this  disease.  Our  own  army  workers  in 
the  Philippines  had  for  a  number  of  years,  preceding  1911,  given 
much  study  to  this  malady.  Japanese  workers  had  also  investi- 
gated the  subject  rather  minutely  and,  had  logic  decreed  the 
course  of  events,  the  announcement  of  the  curative  substance 
should  have  come  from  these  eastern  workers.  But,  as  often 
happens,  the  crucial  experiment  was  developed  at  a  point  far 
removed  from  the  seat  of  the  major  work  in  the  subject.  Poly- 
neuritis  had  become  a  subject  for  experimental  study  in  the  labor- 
atories of  the  German  universities  and  it  was  there  that  Casimir 

99 


43S280 


TOO  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

Funk  became  attracted  to  the  problem.  The  work  he  began  in 
Germany  he  carried  to  England  with  him  and  there  several 
English  workers,  among  them  Hopkins  and  Drummond,  were 
attracted  to  it  as  a  field  of  research.  In  1911,  Funk  published  the 
papers  in  which  he  attributed  the  cause  of  the  disease  to  the  lack 
of  a  certain  chemical  substance,  present  and  extractable  from  the 
hulls  or  polishings  of  rice  and  later  shown  to  be  present  in  yeast. 
This  vitamine  later  came  to  be  recognized  as  only  one  of  several 
types  of  the  substance  and  we  now  call  it  the  antineuritic  vitamine 
or  "water  soluble  B."  The  development  of  the  latter  name  is  also 
interesting,  for,  like  Funk's  discovery,  it  represents  the  culmina- 
tion of  a  second  series  of  investigations  along  an  entirely  different 
line,  namely,  the  search  for  the  factors  essential  to  growth.  In 
fact,  had  vitamine  proved  to  be  simply  a  substance  curative  of 
beri-beri,  the  world  at  large  would  never  have  grown  excited  over 
it  and  much  of  the  vast  amount  of  literature  that  has  accumu- 
lated since  1911  would  never  have  been  written. 

From  the  historian's  viewpoint  the  whole  subject  of  nutrition  is 
absurdly  modern.  It  has  not  had  time  to  acquire  even  a  respect- 
able amount  of  dust.  Atwater  and  his  standard  calorie  tables 
and  the  development  of  the  calorimeter  are  not  beyond  the 
memory  of  many  of  your  professors  in  Teachers  College.  The 
fight  that  raged  about  Chittenden  and  his  low  protein  diet  as 
against  the  statistically  determined  percentage  of  Atwater  and 
Voit  is  contemporaneous  with  the  Spanish- American  War.  Prior 
to  1911,  we  had  reached  an  interesting  development  in  regard  to 
dietary  laws.  We  knew  how  to  measure  food  as  we  measure  coal 
for  a  furnace.  We  knew  how  much  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates 
a  man  must  consume  to  maintain  his  weight  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  insurance  companies.  We  had  learned  the  value  of  water  and 
mineral  salts  and  "that  we  mustn't  despise  the  non-food  material 
commonly  classed  as  roughage  as  essential  to  the  maintenance 
of  our  digestive  mechanism  in  working  trim.  There  were,  how- 
ever, gaps  in  our  knowledge  that  needed  filling  in.  One  of  these 
gaps  was  the  question  as  to  the  substitution  of  proteins  of  one 
sort  for  those  of  another  in  the  diet.  Vegetarianism  vs.  animal 
or  mixed  diets  was  a  controversy  symtomatic  of  our  ignorance  in 
this  particular.  Then,  too,  a  student  by  the  name  of  Stepp  had 
stumbled  across  a  peculiar  situation  in  his  study  of  the  relation  of 


VITAMINES    AND    BABIES  IOI 

fats  to  the  diet.  Basing  his  experiments  on  the  fact  that  ether 
and  alcohol  extract  fats,  he  proceeded  to  extract  a  diet  of  bread 
and  milk  with  alcohol-ether  to  remove  the  fat.  Such  a  treatment 
promptly  proved  that  rats  which  thrived  on  the  diet  before  ex- 
traction failed  to  grow  on  the  extracted  diet  but  could  be  restored 
to  growth  by  mixing  the  alcohol-ether  extract  with  the  extracted 
diet.  Having  established  this  fact,  Stepp  next  proceeded  to  test 
out  the  fats  necessary  to  this  growth  by  substituting  one  pure  type 
after  the  other.  But  even  though  the  fats  were  the  same  as  those 
obtained  from  milk  or  bread  this  substitution  failed  to  work. 
Something  different  from  any  known  fat  was  extracted  by 
alcohol-ether  that  was  necessary  to  growth. 

Mendel  and  Osborne  reported  in  1911  the  results  of  an  ex- 
haustive series  of  experiments  in  protein  feeding.  Students  of 
the  subject  had  for  some  years  been  taking  all  the  known  proteins 
to  pieces  and  determining  their  building  stones.  Such  a  process 
had  revealed  that  about  seventeen  such  stones  (amino  acids,  the 
chemist  calls  them)  were  the  materials  out  of  which  all  proteins 
were  built.  Some  had  all  the  stones  present;  others  lacked 
certain  kinds  and  the  amount  of  each  stone  varied  rather  widely 
with  the  protein.  By  feeding  rats  with  selected  proteins  these 
students  taught  us  that  the  animal  body  demands  all  of  these 
seventeen  stones  in  its  diet  or  it  goes  on  strike.  But  without  going 
into  that  phase  of  the  story  it  is  a  sort  of  side  result  to  which  we 
wish  to  call  attention  here.  No  matter  wha{  combination  of 
protein,  fat,  carbohydrate  and  mineral  salt  they  tried,  they  found 
that  their  animals  failed  to  grow  unless  there  were  present  in  the 
diet  two  somethings;  one  present  in  butter-fat  and  absent  in 
lard;  another  present  in  milk  but  which  was  neither  protein,  fat, 
carbohydrate  nor  mineral.  These  x  and  y  of  Mendel's  experiments 
were  noted  in  papers  published  simultaneously  with  Funk's 
announcement  of  vitamine  in  1911.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  to 
connect  the  two  ideas — were  Stepp's  and  Mendel's  unknowns 
identical  with  Funk's  vitamine? 

Another  worker  who  had  been  following  the  dietary  values  of 
food  mixtures  in  great  detail  was  McCollum.  To  him  we  had 
already  owed  much  for  his  contributions  to  the  importance  of 
salt  mixtures  in  particular.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  in 
1911  and  the  years  immediately  following,  these  three  schools  of 


102'  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

workers  and  many  others  who  had  been  attracted  to  it  should 
have  combined  in  the  pursuit  of  the  vitamines.  It  would  be 
interesting  to  follow  the  development  farther  but  enough  has 
been  given  to  serve  our  purpose  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  in 
1920  we  find  ourselves  speaking  and  discussing  the  properties  of 
three  types  of  vitamines,  each  of  definite  functions  (though  our 
knowledge  of  these  functions  is  extremely  meagre),  each  differing 
from  the  other  two  in  chemical  behavior  and  usually  called  by  the 
following  names:  "Fat  soluble  A,"  identical  with  Stepp's  un- 
known and  Mendel's  butter  fat  factor;  "water  soluble  B,"  the 
antineuritic  vitamine  and  identical  with  Funk's  beri-beri  cure 
and  Mendel's  milk  factor;  "water  soluble  C,"  the  newest  member 
of  the  family  and  the  substance  which  prevents  scurvy.  These 
terms,  at  least  the  "A"  and  "B,"  were  devised  by  McCollum. 
Because  of  what  Kipling  might  designate  as  "another  story" 
McCollum  didn't  like  Funk's  name  and  since  no  one  has  yet 
shown  what  these  substances  are  chemically,  he  preferred  to  call 
them  the  "unidentified  dietary  factors,  water  soluble  B  and  fat 
soluble  A."  But  in  the  absence  of  absolute  knowledge,  the  name 
vitamine  persists  for  lack  of  a  better  term  and  the  McCollum 
terms  are  used  to  distinguish  the  types  which  are  now  often 
shortened  to  vitamine  A,  B,  and  C. 

To-day  we  know  they  are;  we  don't  know  what  they  are.  We 
know  some  of  the  things  they  do  and  don't  do,  we  know  many 
substances  that  contain  them  and  how  to  extract  them  in  a  crude 
way  from  these  substances.  But  their  exact  chemical  nature  is  as 
much  a  puzzle  to-day  as  the  day  of  their  discovery  and  that  fact 
is  one  of  the  hindrances  to  our  progress  in  dietetics. 

Fortunately,  however,  the  progress  of  science  is  not  absolutely 
retarded  by  the  absence  of  complete  information.  In  fact,  if  we 
subtracted  from  modern  medicine  to-day  all  its  empiricism,  it 
would  be  a  very  small  portion,  by  comparison,  that  would  be 
left.  By  careful  feeding  experiments  with  animals  other  than 
man,  we  have  gleaned  much  information  as  to  what  foods  must 
be  present  to  supply  the  A  and  B  factors,  now  known  to  be 
necessary  to  growth.  We  know,  in  part,  what  effect  heat,  acids 
and  alkalis  have  on  these  substances  and  hence  a  little  about  the 
relation  of  cookery  to  these  factors.  In  case  of  adults  with  highly 
varied  diets  we  know  now  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  avoid 


VITAMINES   AND   BABIES  103 

getting  enough  of  these  factors  in  an  average  daily  diet,  though 
we  don't  know  how  they  function  in  the  adult  diet.  The  abun- 
dance of  sources,  however,  relieves  us  of  much  anxiety  in  regard 
to  the  adequacy  in  adult  diets  and  the  general  public  can  safely 
pursue  its  ordinary  dietary  habits  without  much  fear  of  missing 
these  accessories  from  its  menu. 

And  now  we  come  to  the  immediate  object  of  this  paper,  the 
discussion  of  what  vitamines  mean  to  the  babies.  Frankly,  we 
are  at  the  beginning  of  the  subject.  Little  direct  study  has  been 
made.  Most  of  our  conclusions  are  inferences  drawn  from  the 
behavior  of  the  baby  rats,  guinea  pigs,  etc.,  of  the  lower  animal 
order  and,  unfortunately,  while  these  results  are  suggestive  they 
cannot  always  be  shown  of  exact  application  to  the  human 
animal.  Each  species  has  its  metabolic  peculiarities  and  the 
human  species  is  no  exception  to  this  rule.  The  two  things 
that  make  the  subject  vital,  however,  are  first  that  without  the 
vitamines  present  no  type  of  animal  yet  studied  can  grow; 
second,  that  the  limited  character  of  a  baby's  diet  makes  its 
selection  and  preparation  in  terms  of  vitamines  imperative. 

In  1916,  the  author  began  at  the  New  York  Hospital  with  the 
assistance  of  their  pediatrist,  Dr.  Joseph  Roper,  a  series  of  experi- 
ments with  babies  suffering  from  malnutrition.  Aside  from  experi- 
ments conducted  by  Dr.  Alfred  Hess,  these  are  the  first  vitamine 
studies  in  which  babies  have  supplied  the  experimental  material. 
This  work  was  interrupted  by  the  war  but  has  now  been  resumed. 

From  the  animal  studies  developed  to  date,  it  seemed  that 
vitamines  enter  into  infant  feeding  to  the  following  extent:  We 
must  so  select  and  prepare  their  diet  as  to  provide  both  the  A  and 
the  B  type  in  an  easily  assimilable  form  if  we  expect  to  get 
growth.  The  avoidance  of  scurvy,  which  is  now  known  to  be 
definitely  prevented  by  the  "C"  type  and  which  is  the  basis  of  the 
orange  juice  feeding,  demands  the  presence  of  that  type  in  the 
diet.  Rickets,  which  used  to  be  considered  purely  a  matter  of 
calcium  salts,  has  recently  been  stated  by  McCollum  to  be 
the  result  of  deficiency  of  any  two  of  four  factors — quality  of 
protein,  mineral  salts,  fat  soluble  A,  and  water  soluble  B. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  avoidance  of  these  evils  for  successful 
growth  demands  that  we  construct  diets  in  terms  of  these  factors 
and  not  simply  in  terms  of  proteins,  fats,  carbohydrates,  mineral 


104  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

salts  and  calories  as  heretofore.  The  results  of  this  attention  are 
already  manifesting  themselves.  Hess  has  shown  that  while  the 
C  type  is  present  in  milk  it  is  easily  destroyed  at  the  low  tempera- 
tures of  pasteurization  and  therefore  milk  must  not  be  depended 
upon  for  this  factor.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  this  type  is 
present  in  other  and  cheaper  substances  than  orange  juice,  and 
this  expensive  article  may  now  be  replaced  by  cheaper  materials 
such  as  canned  tomato  juice  and  the  like.  He  has  also  recently 
shown  that  apparently  the  A  type  is  not  so  important  in  baby 
diets  as  it  is  in  the  diet  of  rats  and  guinea  pigs,  which  makes  the 
question  of  the  B  type  still  more  important.  For  many  reasons 
the  problem  of  the  B  type  appealed  to  the  author  as  attractive 
experimentally.  Though  it  is  present  in  milk  in  relative  abun- 
dance and,  we  know  now,  stable  to  any  temperature  used  in  milk 
preparation,  the  power  of  the  babies  to  utilize  it  varies  greatly. 
McCollum  early  showed  that  the  B  in  whole  milk  responded 
entirely  differently  to  heat  from  the  same  substance  in  whey  from 
which  the  casein  or  curd  had  been  removed.  Seidell  had  shown 
that  this  form  could'  be  easily  removed  from  solutions  containing 
it  by  merely  shaking  the  same  with  finely  divided  Fullers  earth ; 
in  which  treatment  the  B  sticks  firmly  to  the  earth  and  can  be 
filtered  off  almost  quantitatively  with  it.  Dr.  Gibson  tells  me 
that  he  was  unable  to  cure  beri-beri  in  the  Philippines  by  the  use 
of  milk,  either  cow  or  breast  milk,  although  we  have  always 
considered  the  B  type,  wherever  found,  as  identical  with  the 
antineuritic  form  of  Funk.  Finally,  there  are  types  of  baby 
malnutrition  known  as  marasums  where  no  matter  what  com- 
bination of  milk  diet  used  the  baby  fails  to  grow. 

These  latter  cases  therefore  form  interesting  material  for  testing 
the  vitamine  hypothesis,  and  it  is  with  such  cases  that  the 
author's  experiments  have  dealt.  The  basal  hypothesis  was  that 
while  the  B  type  was  present  in  milk  it  was  for  some  reason  not 
available  to  the  assimilation  of  the  marasmic  baby,  and  that  if 
it  were  supplied  in  an  easily  assimilable  form,  the  child  could  be 
made  to  grow.  To  that  end  experiments  were  devised  for  supple- 
menting the  ordinary  diet  (previously  made  adequate  in  calories, 
quality  of  protein,  and  in  mineral  salts)  by  extracts  of  the  B 
vitamine.  In  the  earlier  experiments  the  material  was  extracted 
from  sheep  pancreas.  In  the  later  ones,  the  ordinary  navy  bean 


VITAMINES   AND   BABIES  105 

was  our  source.  The  source  does  not  seem  to  matter,  and  the 
results  to  date  have  been  equally  successful  with  B  vitamine 
from  either  source. 

The  accompanying  chart,  which  is  a  composite  picture  of  the 
results  with  seven  cases  reported  in  1917  in  the  Journal  of  Dis- 
eases of  Children,1  illustrates  the  apparent  success  of  the  vitamine 
stimulation.  The  results  with  rats  16,  17,  18,  20,  and  22  are 
especially  interesting  as  confirmation  material  in  connection  with 
the  study  of  the  boy  J.  G.  During  the  first  vitamine  period  of 
this  child  five  rats  were  fed  on  the  same  diet  as  the  child,  with  this 
difference — rats  16,  17,  and  18  received  none  of  the  vitamine, 
rats  20  and  21,  on  the  other  hand,  received  doses  of  the  B  vita- 
mine  with  their  food.  The  difference  in  growth  rate  is  obvious 
and  striking.  Furthermore,  as  will  be  noted  by  a  glance  at  these 
figures,  rat  18  made  rapid  recovery  when  at  the  end  of  twenty- 
five  days  the  B  vitamine  was  added,  while  rats  20  and  22  had 
their  growth  much  reduced  by  the  removal  of  the  vitamine  from 
the  diet  for  a  short  period  in  the  middle  of  the  cycle.  The  cases 
shown  are  not  all  equally  strong  evidence,  for  in  some  cases  the 
babies  were  already  beginning  to  gain  at  the  time  when  the 
vitamine  was  administered ;  but  in  every  case  the  rate  of  growth 
increased  with  the  addition  of  the  vitamine  and  this  without 
change  in  the  amount  or  composition  of  the  food  given. 

This  fall,  the  experiments  were  renewed  and  two  babies  have 
since  been  discharged  as  cured  cases  following  favorable  response 
to  the  treatment.  One  of  these  gave  particularly  suggestive  evi- 
dence. This  baby  was  a  girl  aged  four  months  on  admission  and 
weighing  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  6  Ibs.,  5  ozs.  The 
results  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Case  16 
JOSEPHINE  A 

Period        Days         Type  of  feeding        Cal.  value  of  diet        Net  gain  or  loss 

I  32         Mixed  347  6  ozs-  l°ss 

II  17         High  calorie  diet  54$  8  ozs.  gain 

(or  .47  oz.  per  day) 
III  32         Same  as  period  II  548  27  ozs.  gain 

(plus  vitamine  only)  (or  .84  oz.  per  day) 

1  Eddy  and  Roper,  article  in  American  Journal  of  Diseases  of  Children  (1917), 
Vol.  14,  p.  189. 


106  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

Effedls  of  Vitamines  on  Growth 


I  indicates  mm  indicates 

non-vilamine  vitamine 


Rat  16 


Rat  Charts 


Patients'  Charts 


VITAMINES   AND   BABIES  107 

In  this  case  we  have  all  the  factors  constant  (so  far  as  it  is 
possible  to  control  them)  except  the  vitamine,  and  with  the  latter 
the  weight  gain  per  day  is  nearly  doubled.  Such  evidence  is  im- 
pressive if  not  conclusive. 

The  results  of  these  experiments  and  others  not  recorded  here 
seem  to  justify  time  and  attention  to  the  vitamine  control  of  the 
babies'  food.  As  is  obvious,  much  remains  to  be  done.  Many 
questions  raised  by  these  meagre  details  are  as  yet  incapable  of 
answer,  such  as  the  matter  of  dosage,  the  best  form  of  vitamine 
administration,  the  effect  of  vitamine  in  normal  nutrition  as  com- 
pared with  malnutrition  cases.  The  vitamine  analysis  of  the 
foods  used  for  baby  diets  is  another  problem  yet  barely  begun. 

Thanks  to  the  cooperation  of  the  College,  the  department  of 
physiological  chemistry  has  been  enabled  to  take  up  these  prob- 
lems this  year  on  a  much  wider  scale.  Several  students  have  been 
assigned  as  research  workers.  Additional  facilities  and  materials 
for  experimentation  have  been  provided  by  the  opening  to  us  of 
the  wards  of  the  New  York  Nursery  and  Children's  Hospital 
and  the  assistance  of  their  pediatrists.  One  of  the  Teachers 
College  students  has  already  worked  out,  in  fact,  the  development 
of  a  dosage  measurement  that  promises  to  prove  a  most  valuable 
aid  in  the  grading  of  results.  The  program  includes  the  further 
study  of  malnutrition  cases  and  normal  cases,  the  study  of  cereal 
preparation  in  terms  of  adequacy  in  all  the  dietary  factors,  the 
study  of  breast  and  cow's  milk  preparations,  and  the  standardiza- 
tion of  vitamine  analytical  methods.  It  is  hoped  that  through 
these  studies  the  department  of  physiological  chemistry  may  be 
able  to  add  its  quota  to  the  practical  contributions  to  both  instruc- 
tional and  scientific  progress. 


IMPLICATIONS  FOR  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

FROM  EXPERIMENTS  IN 
DEMOCRATIZING  INDUSTRY 

By  FREDERICK  G.  BONSER 

Professor  of  Education,  Teachers  College 

EDITOR'S  NOTE.  At  the  Alumni  Conferences  of  Teachers  College  on  Feb- 
ruary 21,  1920,  before  the  elementary  and  lower  primary  sections,  Mr.  Robert 
E.  Wolf,  consulting  engineer,  presented  the  topic  "Control  and  Consent — 
Instruction,  Initiative,  and  Individualism  in  Industry."  In  this  discussion, 
Mr.  Wolf  gave  the  results  of  extended  experiments  in  providing  opportunity 
and  means  for  the  participation  of  the  employees  in  several  paper  manufactur- 
ing plants  to  analyze  and  improve  their  work.  Records  of  the  time  variability 
and  relative  efficiency  of  various  factors  in  the  processes  were  secured  in  the 
plant  and  shown  to  the  men.  Explanations  were  made  of  the  several  elements, 
and  the  attainable  standards  known  for  each  process  in  efficiency  and  time 
were  derived  and  charted. 

The  men  were  invited  to  improve  the  amount  and  quality  of  their  work  by 
considering  these  standards.  Daily  records  of  each  individual  worker,  of  each 
department,  and  of  the  whole  plant  were  posted.  Rapid  gains  in  every  depart- 
ment soon  followed  with  increased  efficiency  and  earnings  by  nearly  every 
worker.  Each  man  began  to  study  and  plan  to  improve  his  own  record,  be- 
coming thereby  altogether  more  intelligent  about  his  work  and  more  efficient 
in  doing  it.  Suggestions  for  better  ways  of  working  were  often  made  by  work- 
men. A  new  interest  and  a  larger  satisfaction  came  as  the  men  put  their 
initiative  and  creative  impulses  to  work. 

The  foremen  and  managers  all  cooperated  to  give  every  worker,  whatever 
his  grade,  a  chance  to  contribute  his  best  thought  to  the  work,  and  rewarded 
suggestions  and  improvements  with  acceptance  and  increased  wage  returns. 
A  spirit  of  democratic  comradeship  in  a  common  project  was  developed.  A 
premium  was  everywhere  placed  upon  initiative  and  individual  effort  in  the 
/  promotion  of  a  common  purpose.  The  industry  was  socialized  and  democra- 
tized by  the  stimulation  and  reward  of  the  individual  self-expression  of  each 
workman  in  the  intelligent  improvement  of  his  own  particular  work,  all  the  way 
from  the  superintendent  down  to  the  employee  in  the  most  humble  position. 

The  implications  of  such  experiments  in  industry  for  elementary  education 
were  pointed  out  by  Professor  Bonser  in  the  paper  following. 

If  the  schools  are  to  make  their  contribution  in  developing  the 
creative  impulse  in  children,  and  in  making  the  work  of  men  and 
women  a  larger  opportunity  for  the  expression  of  personality,  they 
have  three  closely  related  problems  to  solve. 

108 


IMPLICATIONS   FOR   ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION       109 

The  first  of  these  problems  is  that  of  transforming  the  school 
from  a  place  of  imposed  tasks  to  a  place  of  purposive  activities 
appreciated  in  their  relationships  and  worths  by  the  children 
themselves.  The  second  problem  is  that  of  aiding  in  the  change  of 
the  general  point  of  view  of  occupations  as  mere  means  of  pro- 
ducing the  goods  required  for  the  needs  of  life  to  a  point  of  view 
which  will  regard  work  as  an  opportunity  for  self-expression  and 
creative  effort  yielding  satisfaction  in  itself,  as  well  as  in  its 
material  rewards.  The  third  problem  lies  in  the  democratization 
of  the  administrative  and  supervisory  policies  and  practices  of 
school  boards,  superintendents,  principals,  and  supervisors. 
Human  nature  is  very  much  the  same  among  all  human  beings. 
Whether  industrial  workers,  or  teachers,  or  children,  no  one  likes 
to  be  coerced  or  driven.  Under  conditions  of  suppression  or  sub- 
servience, no  one  expresses  the  best  that  is  in  him  nor  takes  much 
satisfaction  in  such  work  as  he  may  do.  Autocracy  in  any  form 
is  repugnant  and  hateful  to  all  red-blooded,  energetic  people. 
Autocratic  control  can  be  maintained  only  through  the  threat  or 
use  of  force,  be  this  force  openly  flaunted  or  covertly  veiled.  The 
human  quality  upon  which  it  operates  is  fear.  No  personality 
can  express  itself  adequately  when  beset  by  a  state  of  fear. 

Let  us  consider  first  the  implications  of  this  general  view  for  the 
content  and  method  of  work  in  the  school.  If  children  are  given 
an  opportunity  to  participate  creatively  in  the  work  of  the 
school,  the  interest  in  self-expression  as  an  element  in  whatever 
they  do  will  grow  and  bring  them  to  their  work  with  an  attitude 
of  creative  interest  toward  it  and  with  a  habit  of  creative  effort 
in  it.  To  make  the  school  a  place  for  the  cultivation  of  this 
interest  and  habit  means  changes  in  school  procedure  almost  as 
marked  as  those  which  have  been  described  for  industry.  It 
means  that  whatever  is  done  will  be  done  with  the  full,  sympa- 
thetic attitude  of  pupils,  and  that  it  will  be  entered  into  because 
of  a  personally  appreciated  sense  of  its  worth  in  relationship  to  a 
satisfaction  which  it  yields.  It  means  that  school  work  must  be 
organized  on  the  basis  of  problems  which  themselves  require 
creative  endeavor  for  their  solution.  It  means  the  setting  up  of 
purposes  derived  from  a  desire  to  live  more  fully  and  richly  into 
the  natural  and  social  environment.  Through  the  realization  of 
these  purposes  the  work  will  contribute  those  elements  of  race 


110  TEACHERS    COLLEGE   RECORD 

experience  which  have  been  found  most  valuable  for  efficient  and 
satisfying  civilized  life.  Projects  in  the  practical  arts,  in  geog- 
raphy, in  history,  in  literature,  and  in  all  other  subjects  must  be 
so  pursued  that  each  will  yield  a  joy  in  the  work  itself — a  joy 
that  makes  everything  done  create  a  desire  to  do  more.  It  is  a 
part  of  the  teacher's  work  to  direct  interest  to  activities  that  are 
really  creative  in  form,  activities  which  call  for  initiative,  origi- 
nality, experimentation,  and  testing.  If  this  is  not  done  there 
may  be  evidences  of  strong  interests  in  pursuits  that  are  not 
creative  at  all  but  that  are  rather  indications  of  arrested  develop- 
ment. Children  may  like  to  engage  in  mechanical  processes  for 
the  reason  that  they  grow  increasingly  easy,  increasingly  auto- 
matic. All  drill  work  which  continues  to  be  interesting  when 
carried  beyond  the  point  where  its  relationship  to  the  purpose 
which  it  serves  is  the  motive,  becomes  a  means  of  arrested  devel- 
opment rather  than  of  further  growth. 

Projects,  to  provide  their  maximum  value,  must  be  in  gen- 
uinely cooperative  relationships,  just  as  has  been  pointed  out  in 
industry.  The  industrial  worker  contributes  his  portion  to  a 
finished  product  to  which  many  others  are  also  contributing  their 
parts.  His  work  is  not  socialized  unless  he  is  aware  of  the  rela- 
tionships of  their  common  contribution  to  the  consumers  of  their 
products,  of  the  relationships  of  himself  and  his  fellow  workers, 
and  of  the  relationships  of  themselves  and  their  work  to  workers 
in  other  fields.  In  the  school,  the  individual  pupil  should  likewise 
appreciate  his  work  in  its  relationship  to  the  common  purposes  of 
the  class  as  a  whole,  and  the  cooperative  enterprises  of  the  class 
as  a  whole  to  larger  life  purposes  outside  of  the  school. 

This  fundamental  fact  of  social  relationships  in  the  endeavor  of 
every  pupil  must  be  operative  in  the  organization  and  promotion 
of  the  project  method  or  it  is  doomed  to  failure.  Any  form  of 
school  procedure  which  emphasizes  isolated  individualism  at  the 
cost  of  the  appreciation  of  cooperative  relationships  and  an  atti- 
tude of  breadth  and  sympathetic  social  interests  is  undemocratic 
and  un American.  The  problem  requires  the  selection  of  enter- 
prises in  which  the  value  of  the  individual  contribution  lies  in  its 
promotion  of  the  enterprises  of  the  whole  group. 

When,  through  creative  effort  in  industry,  the  individual  dis- 
covers or  invents  some  element  which  is  of  value  to  himself  the 


IMPLICATIONS   FOR   ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION      (|T30 

whole  industry  of  which  he  is  a  part  may  profit  by  his  contribu- 
tion. There  is  no  other  way  to  measure  the  worth  of  his  creative 
effort.  If  it  can  make  no  appreciable  difference  in  the  productive 
processes  which  can  be  shared  by  others  it  is  rated  as  wasted 
effort.  Any  satisfaction  derived  from  the  activity  itself  is  largely 
destroyed  by  the  very  fact  that  it  is  wanting  in  social  value.  In 
school,  likewise,  the  test  of  worth  must  be  social,  or  an  attitude  is 
developed  that  is  selfish  and  unsocial.  Anyone  who  thoughtfully 
observes  the  work  of  children  in  a  class  where  the  project  method 
is  interpreted  as  meaning  purely  individual  enterprises  and  in- 
struction will  be  struck  with  the  breakdown  of  social  unity,  and 
with  the  absence  of  the  cooperative  spirit  and  attitude.  There 
may  be  sufficient  regard  for  others  to  produce  an  attitude  of  non- 
interference, but  this  is  a  negative  attitude  rather  a  positive  one, 
it  is  selfish  rather  than  social.  By  an  appreciation  of  the  worth  of 
the  work  of  others  in  enterprises  for  our  common  good,  our 
feelings  of  relationship  to  others  are  altogether  more  genuinely 
social  and  democratic  than  when  we  simply  do  not  interfere  with 
others  because  we  do  not  wish  to  be  interfered  with  ourselves. 

Creative  effort  is  put  forth  only  as  the  result  of  impulsion.  It 
cannot  be  compelled.  Surroundings  favorable  to  it  therefore 
require  conditions  in  which  children  feel  impelled  to  express 
themselves  in  response  to  situations  in  which  there  are  problems 
to  solve.  To  make  the  solutions  which  bring  satisfaction  may 
call  forth  an  impelling  activity  resulting  in  discovery  or  invention. 
It  may  be  in  construction  work,  in  playing  games,  in  making  in- 
vestigations in  geography  or  science,  in  expressing  thoughts  or 
feelings  in  writing  or  music  or  design,  or  in  the  solution  of  number 
problems.  Whatever  the  situation,  the  full,  wholehearted  con- 
centration of  interest  and  effort  will  appear  only  when  the  motive 
force  lies  within  the  pupil  himself.  Working  under  the  compul- 
sion of  a  teacher  for  which  the  only  personally  appreciated  reward 
is  a  grade  or  mark  suppresses  the  creative  impulse  just  as  does 
working  under  a  foreman  or  manager  for  the  mere  reward  of  the 
wage  received.  It  is  discouraging  and  deadening  to  work  where 
there  is  no  opportunity  for  the  expression  of  initiative,  or  if  an 
opportunity,  no  recognition  of  successful  effort.  Man  is  by  nature 
curious,  exploratory,  investigative.  He  finds  a  joy  in  the  expres- 
sion of  these  creative  impulses.  Most  of  them  may  be  exercised 


112  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

and  satisfied  through  successful  expression  in  connection  with  his 
work  as  well  as  in  his  play.  The  school  life  of  children  should 
afford  the  most  ideal  conditions  for  the  growth  and  refinement  of 
creative  impulses.  It  has  almost  no  limitations  to  place  in  the 
way  of  their  development.  One  of  its  most  significant  purposes 
is  to  provide  conditions  for  the  development  of  creative  impulses 
under  the  guidance  of  social  ends  and  ideals.  It  can  accomplish 
no  more  valuable  service  than  to  turn  the  processes  of  creative 
effort  in  directions  which  will  give  their  products  the  most  worth 
for  human  well-being. 

The  implications  from  industry  apply  quite  as  much  to  the 
teachers,  supervisors,  and  administrators  of  the  schools  as  to  the 
pupils.  Unless  there  is  a  spirit  of  democracy  and  creative  effort 
among  these  in  their  relationships  to  each  other  and  to  the  chil- 
dren, how  can  we  expect  this  spirit  to  exist  among  the  children 
themselves?  The  creative  impulse  is  highly  sensitive  to  what  we 
may  call  atmosphere.  It  flourishes  best  in  an  atmosphere  of 
freedom  and  encouragement.  It  shrinks  and  dies  in  the  presence 
of  autocracy.  It  cannot  be  stimulated  by  dictation.  Dictation 
destroys  it.  The  creative  impulse  is  stimulated  in  an  industrial 
plant  only  in  the  measure  in  which  there  is  a  sympathetic,  co- 
operative, democratic  atmosphere  among  foremen,  managers, 
superintendents,  and  directors,  as  well  as  among  the  men  whom 
they  employ.  If  school  directors,  superintendents,  principals,  and 
supervisors  are  autocratic  and  dictatorial,  teachers  will  be  auto- 
cratic and  dictatorial.  If  teachers  are  autocratic,  initiative  in  the 
children  will  disappear.  Creative  effort  will  cease  and  work  will 
become  a  dreary  routine  of  imposed  tasks.  The  school  may  be- 
come as  mechanical  as  a  piece-work  factory  where  men  receive 
no  more  humane  consideration  than  the  machines  which  they 
operate.  The  great  danger  in  industry  may  be  roughly  stated 
as  the  impersonalization  and  desocialization  of  the  workers.  The 
school  is  beset  with  these  selfsame  dangers.  Personalizing  and 
socializing  are  but  vitally  related  aspects  of  the  same  problem. 
Fostering  the  development  of  the  creative  impulses  is  one  aspect ; 
so  directing  these  that  their  products  are  of  wholesome,  positive 
social  worth  is  the  other.  We  have  not  only  to  ask,  is  the  indi- 
vidual child  engaged  in  producing  constructions,  skills,  ideals, 
attitudes,  and  appreciations,  working  with  the  full  play  of  per- 


IMPLICATIONS   FOR   ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION       113 

sonal  interest  and  initiative;  but  also  we  have  to  ask,  what  is  the 
worth  of  these  specific  products  to  the  well  being  of  social  life 
as  a  whole?  Are  they  positively  beneficial?  Are  they  just 
of  no  social  value  at  all?  Or  are  they  antagonistic  to  the  well- 
being  of  society? 

To  answer  these  questions  with  the  children  themselves  means 
attention  to  the  second  problem  raised  in  the  beginning  as  well 
as  the  first.  We  have  been  speaking  chiefly  of  the  school  work  it- 
self. The  second  question  has  to  do  with  the  change  in  the  gen- 
eral point  of  view  with  regard  to  the  world's  work.  The  two 
problems  are  closely  related.  The  personal  and  social  values  we 
strive  to  promote  in  the  schools  are  the  same  in  kind  as  those  in 
productive  industry  and  in  the  everyday  world  of  intellectual 
and  appreciative  satisfactions.  But  we  may  go  further  with  this 
study  of  work  and  the  satisfactions  which  it  may  yield.  There 
is  a  peculiar  joy  in  the  work  of  all  men  and  women  when  that 
work  calls  forth  the  constant  use  of  ideas  and  feelings  in  new 
ways,  and  stimulates  the  development  of  new  ideas.  Occupations 
which  have  included  these  opportunities  have  been  called  ener- 
gizing. But  where  work  is  a  routine,  requiring  no  applications  of 
ideas  or  feelings  in  new  ways  and  no  stimulation  of  new  ideas, 
there  is  almost  nothing  of  this  joy  in  work.  Occupations  of  this 
kind  have  been  called  enervating.  In  the  mechanical,  routine 
occupations  there  may  often  be  a  dogged  kind  of  apathetic  resig- 
nation, and  a  feeling  of  discomfort  if  the  work  is  discontinued. 
But  this  represents  a  form  of  arrested  development.  The  discom- 
fort comes  from  the  absence  of  activities  which  have  become 
mechanical  habits. 

In  the  energizing  occupations,  little  aside  from  the  work  itself 
is  required  to  keep  up  the  buoyancy  of  spirit  of  the  worker.  His 
work  supplies  a  variety  of  satisfactions  and  keeps  him  always 
animated  by  the  zest  of  that  which  is  novel.  In  the  enervating 
occupations,  much  of  variety  in  interest  is  necessary  outside  of 
working  time  to  balance  the  dead  level  of  the  mechanical.  Funda- 
mentally, the  difference  which  produces  the  two  attitudes  is  the 
difference  in  the  occupations,  as  followed,  to  stimulate  and  give 
play  and  worth  to  the  creative  impulse. 

The  organization  of  the  work  is  in  itself  a  means  by  which  the 
difference  between  the  two  attitudes  is  intensified.  Workers  in 


114  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

the  energizing  occupations  are  largely  free  of  managerial  or 
directive  oversight.  The  lawyer,  the  doctor,  the  artist,  and  the 
musician  have  no  manager  or  superintendent  or  principal  to  whom 
they  must  yield  the  direction  of  their  activities.  They  have 
personal,  self -directive  freedom.  They  are  controlled  by  condi- 
tions and  the  social  worth  of  their  products,  and  not  by  individ- 
als  with  authority  over  them.  Conditions  may  be  analyzed  and 
adjusted  to  without  any  feeling  of  subservience.  Yielding  to 
them  implies  no  feeling  of  personal  inferiority.  But,  in  industry, 
the  systems  of  piece  work  and  factory  organization  with  man- 
agers, superintendents,  and  foremen  hedge  the  worker  about  with 
authorities  who  direct  his  activities  and  control  his  freedom  to 
make  variations  or  to  be  guided  by  conditions  alone.  Naturally 
the  limitations  for  variation  in  the  so-called  enervating  occupa- 
tions are  greater  because  of  the  mechanical  character  of  the 
methods  of  production.  Yet,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  the 
experiments  in  industry,  there  may  still  be  introduced  oppor- 
tunities for  energizing  elements,  even  in  the  most  mechanical 
forms  of  production.  These  energizing  factors  not  only  save 
the  personality  of  the  worker,  but  they  yield  increases  in  the 
economic  returns  to  employers  and  increased  production  for 
consumers.  There  is  a  problem  in  the  study  of  enervating  occu- 
pations to  find  what  they  may  offer  to  utilize  this  creative  impulse 
and  give  it  both  personal  and  social  value.  We  may  find  that  all 
occupations  may  be  energizing,  although  in  relatively  different 
degrees.  Some  one  has  said  that  there  is  no  unskilled  work. 
There  are  unskilled  workers.  It  may  be  conceived  that  in  every 
kind  of  work  nothing  is  so  well  done  that  we  cannot  find  ways  of 
doing  it  better.  There  is  always  room  for  initiative  and  inven- 
tion. 

A  further  implication  from  the  studies  in  industry  for  the 
schools  which  has  been  much  emphasized  in  connection  with  the 
project  method  seems  to  be  clearly  evident.  In  school,  even  such 
mechanical  operations  as  writing,  spelling,  the  number  processes, 
and  the  mechanics  of  reading  may  be  mastered  and  made  to  yield 
their  values  in  the  most  effective  way  when  they  are  approached 
through  situations  in  which  the  pupil  is  impellingly  engaged.  The 
full  vigor  of  purposive  drive,  and  the  dynamic  of  interest  and 
sense  of  worth  make  the  mastery  a  response  to  a  personally 


IMPLICATIONS   FOR   ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION       115 

appreciated  need.  Achievement  is  more  economical  in  both  time 
and  effort  than  when  the  process  is  laboriously  learned  as  a  pre- 
scribed task.  The  conditions,  and  not  the  authority  of  the 
teachers,  elicit  the  activity. 

As  to  the  third  problem,  that  of  democratizing  the  adminis- 
trative and  supervisory  officers  of  the  school  system,  allusion  has 
already  been  made  to  the  importance  of  this  factor  in  its  relation- 
ship to  the  atmosphere  and  tone  of  the  work  with  and  by  the 
children.  There  is  another  aspect  of  this  problem  that  is  of  far- 
reaching  significance  for  education.  This  is  the  question  of  the 
effect  of  the  relationship  of  other  school  officials  to  the  teachers 
upon  the  teachers  themselves.  The  so-called  bankruptcy  of 
education  through  the  flocking  of  teachers  to  other  callings  is, 
without  doubt,  partly  a  matter  of  salary.  But,  the  cause,  not 
only  of  many  of  the  withdrawals  from  the  profession  but  of  much 
of  the  mechanical  teaching  by  those  teachers  remaining,  is  the 
intolerably  autocratic  control  of  superintendents,  principals,  and 
supervisors.  Before  the  war  the  economic  conditions  in  our 
country  made  it  seem  to  thousands  of  teachers  that  they  had  to 
endure  this  condition  to  make  a  livelihood.  Now  they  do  not 
have  to  endure  it  and  they  will  not.  The  break  comes  hard  with 
many  who  have  genuine  professional  zeal,  but  it  often  comes  as 
the  only  means  for  the  preservation  of  personality  and  intellec- 
tual self-respect.  If  the  schools  are  to  be  saved  to  do  their 
appointed  work  in  the  service  of  our  democracy,  their  boards  of 
education,  superintendents,  principals,  and  supervisors  will  have 
to  bear  broadminded,  sympathetic,  and  genuinely  democratic 
relationships  to  their  teachers.  They  will  have  to  provide  means 
for  the  participation  of  the  teachers  in  the  promotion  of  the 
school's  enterprises  and  policies.  They  will  have  to  learn  enough 
about  what  good  teaching  is  and  about  what  a  good  teacher  can 
accomplish  if  she  is  treated  as  a  personality  with  some  initiative, 
creative  capacity,  and  judgment  of  values,  to  treat  her  as  a  pro- 
fessional equal.  Some  of  our  school  systems  are  top-heavy  with  a 
sodden  mediocrity,  and  there  is  nothing  which  so  makes  medioc- 
rity assert  itself  as  a  little  authority.  Many  a  teacher  in  the 
grades  who  knows  more  about  teaching  than  her  principal  or 
supervisor  will  ever  know  is  browbeaten  into  a  subservience  that 
means  either  death  to  her  personality  or  withdrawal  from  the  work. 


116  TEACHERS    COLLEGE   RECORD 

The  method  by  which  administrative  and  supervisory  officers 
of  schools  are  chosen  is  partly  responsible  for  this  situation.  The 
frequent  failure  in  school  administrators  to  distinguish  between 
the  business  aspects  of  the  office  and  the  professional  aspects  is 
another  cause.  Both  of  these  causes  are  contributing  to  the 
filling  of  many  of  these  offices  with  men  and  women  who  have 
wholly  wrong  attitudes  toward  supervision,  some  from  crass 
ignorance,  some  from  moral  mediocrity,  and  some  from  inborn, 
temperamental  kaiserism.  But,  whatever  the  cause,  the  remedy 
lies  in  changing  the  autocratic  attitude  of  supervisors  and  admin- 
istrators, where  this  attitude  exists,  into  one  of  genuinely  demo- 
cratic cooperation  with  the  teachers  in  the  interests  of  the  chil- 
dren. Unless  this  cooperative  attitude  is  realized,  the  work  of 
the  teacher  is  more  truly  described  by  the  term  enervating  than 
energizing.  Change  from  the  regime  of  authority  to  one  of 
cooperative  consent,  and  we  shall  see  as  great  improvement 
in  school  work  as  we  have  seen  in  industry  in  the  experiments 
described. 

To  summarize  briefly,  the  implications  for  the  schools  from  the 
attempts  to  personalize  and  socialize  industrial  occupations,  I 
deduce  in  this  way:  The  schools  should  organize  their  whole 
round  of  work  on  the  basis  of  projects  that  will  arouse  in  children 
challenges  and  feelings  that  will  impel  them  to  put  forth  their 
creative  energy  in  carrying  forward  these  projects;  that  the  selec- 
tion of  projects  should  be  such  that  the  social  worth  of  the  results 
of  effort  will  be  constantly  tested;  that  the  projects  selected 
should  in  themselves  be  cooperative,  socialized  life  situations  in 
which  the  individual  contributions  will  derive  their  worth  from 
the  measure  in  which  they  promote  the  common  interests  of  the 
group;  and  that  the  projects  should  so  reflect  the  occupational 
and  recreational  interests  of  the  present  social  world  that  what- 
ever of  value  is  derived  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  school  will 
contribute  toward  a  larger  personalization  and  socialization  of  the 
occupations  themselves.  This  means  a  socialized  curriculum,  a 
socialized  method,  and  a  democratic  spirit  of  cooperation.  It 
means  putting  a  high  premium  upon  creative  effort  and  co- 
operative participation  in  all  school  enterprises  from  the  super- 
intendent's office  down  through  principals,  supervisors,  teachers, 
and  pupils  to  the  youngest  child  in  the  kindergarten. 


WHY   HIGH   SCHOOL   PRINCIPALS    SUCCEED 
AND  WHY  THEY  FAIL* 

By  ALBERT  B.  MEREDITH,  L.H.D. 

Assistant  State  Commissioner  of  Education  for  New  Jersey 

In  what  I  have  to  say  I  shall  have  particularly  in  mind  the 
small  high  school,  with  fewer  than  seven  teachers,  since  it  is  in 
the  smaller  schools  that  the  success  or  failure  of  the  principal  is 
more  marked,  and  the  consequences  of  his  practices  and  of  his 
ideals  more  immediately  felt.  The  responsibilities  of  the  princi- 
palship,  however,  are  no  less  in  one  type  of  school  than  in  another. 
They  differ  rather  in  degree  than  in  kind. 

In  every  high  school  a  progressive  principal  is  the  dynamic, 
vital,  and  propelling  force  of  the  organization.  He  sets  its 
standards  and  establishes  its  ideals.  He  thinks  of  his  school  as 
something  more  than  a  mere  aggregate  of  classes.  The  school  in 
his  mind  is  an  organization  with  a  life  of  its  own,  with  a  conscious- 
ness of  its  significance  in  the  field  of  education,  and,  moreover, 
it  is  coming  to  have  a  more  sensitive  conscience  with  respect  to 
its  obligations  to  growing  youth. 

The  position  of  the  principal  is  strategic.  He  is  officially 
responsible  for  the  activities  of  the  school  and  also  for  its  spirit 
and  its  morale.  He  is  responsible,  in  a  large  measure,  for  the 
health  of  his  fellow  workers,  pupils,  and  teachers,  for  the  quality 
of  the  teaching,  and  for  the  educational  growth  of  those  associated 
with  him.  The  failure  or  success  of  the  school  in  the  eyes  of  the 
public  is  largely  a  matter  of  the  principal's  own  making.  The 
importance  of  the  high  school  principalship  is  more  fully  realized 
to-day  than  ever  before,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  that  there  are 
more  pupils  in  the  high  schools  than  formerly,  and  that  the  public 
has  a  keener  sense  of  the  social  and  civic  value  of  the  high  school. 
All  these  factors  suggest  possible  points  of  failure  as  well  as 
emphasize  opportunities  for  service. 

The  discriminating  superintendent  will  delegate  to  the  compe- 
tent principal  much  power  and  responsibility.  He  will  give  him 
opportunities  to  exercise  initiative  and  to  display  his  own 

*Address  given  at  Annual  Alumni  Conferences  at  Teachers  College,  February,  1920. 

117 


Il8  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

individuality.  This  freedom,  at  the  same  time,  involves  on  the 
part  of  the  principal  a  corresponding  loyalty  to  the  larger  aims 
of  the  school  system  as  a  whole,  and  also  to  its  official  head.  The 
day  is  past,  however,  when  this  loyalty  means  simply  willingness 
and  faithfulness  in  carrying  out  the  instructions  of  the  superin- 
tendent. 

Why  then  do  some  principals  fail? 

i.  One  outstanding  reason  for  failure  is  the  lack  of  specific 
professional  training  for  the  position.  Too  frequently  good 
teachers  have  been  advanced  from  the  class  room  to  administra- 
tive responsibilities  because  the  board  of  education  has  desired 
to  recognize  their  worth  by  giving  them  better  salaries.  As  a 
teacher,  the  principal  may  have  been  eminently  successful;  but 
as  an  administrator  he  may  be  a  failure.  Unless  a  principal  thus 
advanced  has  made  a  special  preparation  for  this  work  of  adminis- 
tration, he  usually  lacks  a  broad  and  comprehensive  philosophy 
of  education.  He  has  little  or  no  professional  background  in 
sociology,  economics,  or  related  subjects.  He  has  failed  to  get  the 
specific  training  for  the  position  of  leader,  however  great  his 
success  may  have  been  as  an  instructor.  He  lacks  perspective 
and  vision.  He  is  likely  to  think  of  the  high  school  as  a  separate 
institution,  and  not  as  an  integral  part  of  a  common  school  course 
of  twelve  years. 

Further,  an  untrained  principal  does  not  recognize  the  various 
types  of  pupils  which  make  up  the  high  school  enrollment,  in 
relation  to  their  varying  ages,  probable  destinies,  and  the  length 
of  time  they  will  remain  in  school ;  nor  does  he  consider  the  rela- 
tions which  should  exist  between  the  high  school  and  the  elemen- 
tary grades.  The  secondary  school  stands  for  more  than  he 
thinks.  Without  a  broad  training  for  leadership  the  principal 
is  apt  to  shape  the  school  curricula  in  the  light  of  college  entrance 
requirements.  He  will  think  of  the  school  as  a  place  in  which  to 
administer  courses,  because  he  does  not  appreciate  the  fact  that 
educational  processes  and  materials  are  not  static,  since  society 
is  not  static.  He  fails  to  realize  that  the  high  school  is  interested 
primarily  in  persons  in  their  relations  to  knowledge,  to  aptitudes, 
to  capacities,  to  training  in  skill,  and  to  matters  of  individual 
and  social  development  and  growth.  He  does  not  see  what  these 
elements  of  personal  worth  have  to  do  with  the  real  needs  of  the 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  PRINCIPAL  119 

hour.  In  short,  a  principal  without  training  for  the  work  rarely 
comes  to  know  what  is  really  meant  by  a  high  school.  No  simple 
or  single  expression  describing  the  high  school  can  be  easily  made. 
Its  purposes  are  related  to  knowledge,  aspiration,  purposeful 
habits,  workable  ideals,  and  to  various  forms  of  skill. 

Failing  to  grasp  the  real  significance  of  the  high  school,  the 
principal  is  unable  to  get  the  idea  over  to  the  teachers  associated 
with  him,  to  the  pupils,  or  to  the  public.  In  the  degree  to  which 
this  is  not  done,  the  principal  has  failed.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
succeeds  if  he  has  a  working  knowledge  of  the  opportunities  and 
responsibilities  of  the  high  school  as  a  part  of  the  school  system, 
and  also  has  the  skill  through  knowledge,  insight,  and  ability  to 
bring  those  associated  with  him  to  the  same  view.  In  other 
words,  he  succeeds  if  he  has  vision  and  the  qualities  of  leadership. 

2.  A  second  reason  for  a  principal's  failure  is  to  be  found  in 
his  lack  of  a  keen  sense  of  relative  values  regarding  his  duties, 
and  the  time  at  his  disposal  as  an  administrator,  inspector  or 
appraiser,  and  as  a  supervisor. 

Too  much  of  a  principal's  time  is  spent  merely  in  keeping  the 
machinery  going.  In  the  business  administration  of  the  schools 
there  is  too  little  responsibility  delegated  to  the  teachers,  to  the 
pupils,  and  to  the  clerks  who  have  in  charge  the  routine  matters 
of  the  school.  In  matters  of  everyday  occurrence  a  good  motto 
for  the  principal  is:  "Do  nothing  in  administration  that  you 
can  get  others  to  do."  Principals  spend  vastly  more  time  than  is 
necessary  in  the  office  on  clerical  details. 

No  one  piece  of  school  administration  is  more  vital  in  the 
matter  of  the  efficient  use  of  the  time  and  energy  of  pupils  and 
teachers  than  the  weekly  schedule  of  recitations,  and  yet  how 
much  time  is  wasted  in  preparing  the  scheme  of  class  work, 
through  failure  to  apply  definite  principles  of  organization  and 
economy.  The  typical  schedule  of  recitations  is  a  mosaic,  organ- 
ized more  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  irregular  through  failure 
than  for  those  who  advance  regularly.  Good  business  manage- 
ment reduces  the  time  ordinarily  taken  to  make  a  schedule,  and 
also  conserves  the  broader  interests  of  the  school.  The  principles 
of  the  "block  plan" 1  as  worked  out  in  the  Boston  schools  illus- 
trates the  desirable  type  of  schedule  I  have  in  mind. 

'See  School  and  Society,  6:688-9. 


120  TEACHERS    COLLEGE   RECORD 

Another  source  of  failure  as  an  administrator  is  the  failure  to 
keep  adequate  school  records.  When  a  pupil  accomplishes  a 
unit  of  work,  he  has  a  right  to  expect  that  a  proper  and  intelligible 
record  has  been  kept,  which  is  capable  of  interpretation  by  any 
one  who  has  access  to  it  later.  The  matter  of  complete  records 
of  high  school  work  is  of  growing  importance  in  connection  with 
the  legal  demands  for  high  school  education  as  a  prerequisite 
to  entering  teaching  or  any  of  the  other  professions. 

Scrupulous  care  in  the  matter  of  keeping  definite  office  hours 
for  the  public  and  for  the  teachers  adds  to  the  confidence  which 
should  be  one  of  the  assets  of  a  school  administrator  in  his  busi- 
ness relations.  When  office  hours  are  advertised,  the  public 
has  a  right  to  expect  that  the  principal  will  keep  them,  and 
it  is  characteristic  of  poor  public  business  if  the  principal  is  not 
to  be  found  by  the  public  or  by  the  teachers  at  the  advertised 
time. 

Many  principals  fail  because  they  take  all  criticism  of  the 
administration  as  personal.  The  principal  should  be  a  good 
listener.  Frequently  a  complainant  is  wholly  satisfied  if  he  has 
had  a  chance  to  tell  his  story  all  the  way  through,  even  if  positive 
action  by  the  principal  does  not  follow.  There  is  all  the  more 
reason  for  courtesy  and  patience  if  the  answer  has  to  be  in  the 
negative.  Firmness  and  courtesy  should  characterize  the  prin- 
cipal's attitude  in  all  contacts  with  the  public  and  the  school. 
He  should  be  willing  to  take  any  criticism  which  makes  for  the 
common  good;  otherwise  to  this  extent  he  fails. 

As  an  inspector  or  appraiser  of  school  results,  the  successful 
principal  is  familiar  with  the  use  of  standard  tests  and  measures, 
so  far  as  they  have  been  developed  for  high  school  subjects. 
These  tests  he  uses  to  supplement  his  own  observations  of  class- 
room activities.  He  regards  each  subject  in  its  relation  to  the 
other  units  of  the  curriculum.  He  does  curriculum  thinking  and 
does  not  regard  each  subject  as  a  detached  unit  of  school  work. 
Failure  as  an  inspector  often  comes  as  the  result  of  not  making 
clear  to  each  teacher  the  bases  upon  which  his  work  is  being 
estimated.  The  standards  used  by  the  principal  are  not  always 
understood  by  the  teacher,  and  I  sometimes  think  that  this 
condition  is  more  frequently  found  in  the  high  school  than  in 
the  elementary  grades. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  PRINCIPAL  121 

The  business  of  the  principal,  as  an  inspector,  is  to  protect 
pupils,  teachers,  and  the  public  from  incompetency.  Failure  to 
produce  attainable  results  on  the  part  of  any  teacher  is  a  con- 
dition which  demands  prompt  and  fair  treatment  at  the  hands 
of  a  principal.  He  must  know  good  school  work  when  he  sees  it. 
All  the  school  machinery  and  organization  are  but  means  to  an 
end;  viz.,  that  the  best  possible  conditions  may  be  created  for 
the  act  of  teaching. 

The  chief  business  of  the  principal,  however,  is  to  supervise 
instruction.  This  activity  is  the  largest  field  of  service,  and  yet 
it  is  in  this  relation  that  a  majority  of  principals  fall  short  of 
their  highest  usefulness.  Among  the  causes  which  operate  may 
be  mentioned  lack  of  a  technique  of  supervision,  the  great 
diversity  of  work  offered  in  a  modern  high  school,  failure  to 
recognize  the  various  types  of  learning  which  are  most  prominent 
in  the  different  subjects,  and  the  fact  that  teachers  are  largely 
specialists,  while  the  principal  is  a  general  practitioner  in  the 
field  of  education.  Another  manifest  cause  of  failure  is  the  lack 
of  a  working  knowledge  of  the  psychology  of  adolescence.  A 
still  further  reason  for  failure  is  found  in  not  knowing  the  factors 
of  progression  within  a  given  subject,  whereby  the  different 
stages  of  advancement  may  be  clearly  indicated.  Too  frequently 
there  exists  in  the  supervisor's  mind  no  clean  cut  distinction  be- 
tween the  various  levels  of  difficulty  which  a  sequential  sub- 
ject, e.  g.,  history  or  English,  presents. 

Unless  a  principal  teaches  a  class  regularly,  and  is  responsible 
for  its  progress,  he  is  likely  to  be  out  of  intimate  touch  with  real 
teaching  problems.  To  teach  a  class  means  to  have  a  sympathy 
with  and  an  understanding  of  the  difficulties  met  by  both  pupils 
and  teachers.  At  the  same  time,  by  teaching,  a  principal  would 
be  kept  a  student.  Teaching  offers  also  an  excellent  opportunity 
to  enforce  precept  by  example  through  having  teachers  visit 
the  principal's  class  for  help. 

The  successful  supervisor  uses  his  best  teachers  to  assist  those 
who  are  but  apprentices  or  who  may  be  failing.  Not  to  utilize 
this  valuable  asset  in  any  school  means  failure  to  achieve  the 
highest  success.  Failure  in  supervision  is  due  in  part  to  not 
having  a  definite  plan.  Supervision  should  be  definite  and  sym- 
pathetic, not  merely  incidental  or  accidental.  While  the  approach 


122  TEACHERS    COLLEGE    RECORD 

to  the  teacher  may  appear  incidental,  it  should  be  a  part  of  a 
well  matured  and  constructive  plan  of  the  principal. 

Many  principals  fail  because  their  criticisms  of  their  teachers 
are  too  vague  and  indefinite.  Teachers  may  never  have  clearly 
understood  what  is  expected  of  them,  and,  when  criticized,  the 
suggestions  are  not  always  given  with  a  full  knowledge  of  all  the 
conditions  under  which  they  work.  Fairness  and  definiteness  in 
criticism,  together  with  discriminating  praise,  make  for  the 
highest  success  in  the  class  room,  and  for  the  success  of  the 
principal  as  a  leader  and  inspirer  of  teachers.  It  is  the  spirit  of 
helpfulness  that  counts  in  supervision.  Principals  as  supervisors 
are  successful  when  they  can  anticipate  a  teacher's  difficulties 
and  needs.  Teachers  should  not  have  to  take  the  initiative  in  all 
cases  when  help  is  needed. 

3.  A  third  outstanding  reason  for  non-success  is  the  princi- 
pal's failure  to  utilize  for  citizenship  ends  and  for  their  incidental 
values,  the  extra-curricular  activities  of  the  school.  Good  citizen- 
ship does  not  consist  merely  in  having  a  knowledge  of  our  civic 
ideals  or  of  the  institutions  which  represent  these  ideals,  but 
rather  in  possessing  habits  of  action  which  involve  such  qualities 
as  respect  for  others,  a  sense  of  personal  responsibility  for  the 
common  weal,  a  spirit  of  the  square  deal.  All  these  qualities  find 
their  expression  in  the  athletic,  debating,  and  social  activities  of 
the  school.  The  successful  principal  knows  this  and  encourages 
these  interests  and  directs  them  into  helpful  channels. 

Again,  the  principal  fails  when  he  does  not  become  an  active 
participant  in  the  social  and  civic  life  of  his  community.  The 
principal  is  the  attorney  for  the  high  school  before  the  public. 
He  represents  a  part  of  the  institution  which,  next  to  the  church, 
is  of  most  immediate  interest  to  the  public.  His  participation 
in  civic  affairs  is  to  the  end  that  he  may  be  of  greatest  service 
to  the  children  of  the  community.  Moreover,  the  principal 
needs  the  corrective  which  may  be  supplied  by  his  intimate  con- 
tact with  the  public.  His  own  philosophy  of  life  and  his  profes- 
sional practices  are  greatly  aided  by  this  relationship.  The 
danger  arising  from  constant  contact  with  younger  minds  is 
averted  by  closer  relations  with  adults.  Teachers  and  principals 
often  fail  at  this  point. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  PRINCIPAL  123 

4.  Finally,  a  principal  fails  by  not  exercising  the  human 
qualities  of  tact,  sympathy,  friendliness,  and  respect  for  others. 
Some  one  has  said  that  the  world  consists  mostly  of  other  people. 
I  recently  asked  twelve  adults  chosen  at  random  what  qualities 
they  admired  most  in  the  principals  or  teachers  they  knew  best, 
and  what  were  the  reasons,  as  they  saw  it,  for  the  success  of 
their  principals  and  teachers.  All  who  were  questioned  said 
they  recognized  scholarship  and  executive  skill,  but  that  they 
admired  and  responded  to  tact,  and  understanding  of  youth,  con- 
sideration, and  big-hearted  personality.  One  hundred  teachers, 
when  similarly  questioned,  said  they  admired  most  in  a  princi- 
pal "friendly  sympathy  and  kindly  encouragement."  Further, 
these  teachers  admire  courage  and  a  willingness  to  face  adminis- 
trative problems  as  they  arise,  also  the  principal's  ability  to 
make  decisions,  to  act,  and  to  take  the  consequences  of  his 
decisions.  These  are  the  marks  of  success  in  leadership  in  any 
undertaking.  Are  they  not  especially  needed  in  high  school 
principalships?  Of  course,  every  principal  should  be  possessed  of 
a  saving  sense  of  humor.  This  will  illuminate  many  dark  and 
perplexing  situations. 

To  be  a  success  as  a  principal  means: 

1.  Vision  and  leadership  due  to  natural  ability  and  specific 
training. 

2.  A  sense  of  the  significance  of  his  position  and  a  working 
knowledge  of  the  relative  importance  of  his  duties. 

3.  A  utilization  of  the  life  of  the  school  and  all  its  interests  for 
citizenship  ends. 

4.  The  exercise  of  judgment,  fairness,  and  sympathy  in  his 
contact  with  persons. 

In  conclusion,  the  successful  principal  must  be  intensely 
human,  for  without  this  quality  he  cannot  but  fail. 


HOW  TO  COMPUTE  THE  MEDIAN 

By  WILLIAM  A.  McCALL 

Assistant  Professor  of  Experimental  Education,  Teachers  College 

This  article,  written  by  request,  purposes  to  give  a  brief  sum- 
mary and  evaluation  of  the  manifold  methods  for  computing  the 
median.  The  article  will  close  with  an  amended  definition  of  the 
median  and  with  a  recommendation  as  to  what  method  of  com- 
putation should  be  adopted  for  general  use. 

A  class  of  fifteen  pupils  were  tested  by  the  Courtis  Arithmetic 
Test,  Series  B,  Addition.  The  number  of  problems  done  cor- 
rectly by  each  pupil  was  as  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  I 

Pupil  a    b      c      d     e     f     g     h      i      j       k     I     m    n      o 
Score  67     10     II     4     13     7     3     10     12     13     5     5     n     10 

The  first  step  in  the  computation  of  a  median  is  to  arrange  the 
measures  of  Table  I  in  the  order  of  their  size.  Such  an  order  dis- 
tribution is  given  in  Table  II. 

TABLE  II 

Pupil  helmagbc       i       o      d      n      j      f      k 
Score  3455677     10     10     10     ii     n     12     13     13 

What  is  the  median  for  the  above  class?  The  median  is, 
according  to  general  acceptance,  that  score  which  has  as  many 
scores  above  it  in  size  as  there  are  scores  below  it  in  size.  When 
scores  are  arranged  in  an  order  distribution,  as  in  Table  II,  the 
median  is  the  middle  measure.  Just  which  score  is  the  middle  one 

N  +  i 

is  quickly  determined  by  the  formula  • — ,  where  N  is  the 

2 

number  of  scores  or  measures.    Method  I  shows  the  computation : 

METHOD  I 
Total  number  of  pupils  =  15.  ZL±JL  =  I5  +  '   =  8 

2  2 

Thus  the  middle  pupil  is  the  eighth 
124 


HOW   TO   COMPUTE   THE   MEDIAN  125 

Counting  from  the  smallest  score  toward  the  largest  score,  or 

vice  versa,  the  eighth  score  is  10 
Hence,  the  medfan  =  10 

But  suppose  there  had  been  sixteen  pupils  in  the  class  instead 
of  fifteen  and  that  pupil  p  had  made  a  score  of  7.  Table  III  gives 
the  new  situation. 

TABLE  III 

Pupil      helmagpbc      i      o      d      n      j      f      k 
Score      345     5   6    7    7    7    10     10    10    11     11     12    13     13 

Now,  what  is  the  median?  It  is  not  the  middle  score,  for  when 
the  total  of  pupils  in  a  class  is  an  even  number,  there  is  no  middle 
score.  The  definition  for  a  median  does  not  cover  the  case,  conse- 
quently different  statisticians  have  each  proceeded  to  amend  the 
accepted  definition  according  to  his  pleasure.  The  diverse  re- 
sults afford  a  remarkably  telling  argument  for  the  necessity  of 
accurate  and  adequate  original  definition  of  scientific  terminology. 
Methods  II,  III,  and  IV  are  the  ones  most  frequently  used  to 
deal  with  this  situation. 

METHOD  II 1 

Total  number  of  pupils  =  16.  = =  8.5 

2  2 

Drop  the  .5  and  call  the  middle  score  the  eighth  score 
Counting  from  the  smallest  score,  the  eighth  score  is  7 
Hence,  the  median  =  7 

METHOD  III 

Add  .5  and  call  the  middle  score  the  ninth  score 
Counting  from  the  smallest  score,  the  ninth  score  is  10 
Hence,  the  median  =  10 

METHOD  IV 
Call  the  middle  score  halfway  between  the  eighth  and  ninth 

N  +  i 

scores,  since  -        -  yields  8.5 
2 

Counting  from  the  smallest  score  the  eighth  score  is  7  and  the 
ninth  score  is  10  , 

Hence,  the  median  = =  8.5 

2 

*See  Monroe,  DeVoss  and  Kelly:  Educational  Tests  and  Measurements,  page 
243.  (Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1917.) 


126  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

The  traditional  definition  of  the  median  is  adequate  (i)  when 
there  is  a  middle  score,  and  (2)  when  there  is  no  middle  score  but 
when  the  two  middle-most  scores  are  identical  in  size.  The  ac- 
cepted definition  is  inadequate  when  there  is  no  middle  score  and 
when  the  two  middle-most  scores  are  different  in  size.  Method  I 
is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  original  definition.  Methods 
II,  III,  and  IV  are  necessary  but  arbitrary  amendments.  Of  the 
last  three,  Method  IV  must  surely  appeal  to  all  as  being  in  more 
accord  with  common  sense.  Hence,  the  writer  proposes  the 
following  re-definition  of  the  median:  When  measures  are  ar- 
ranged in  order  of  size,  the  median  is  the  middle  measure,  or  (lack- 
ing a  middle  measure}  midway  between  the  two  middle-most  meas- 
ures. 

We  could  now  consider  answered  the  question  of  how  to  com- 
pute a  median  were  it  not  for  some  statisticians  who  have 
bequeathed  us  even  more  complicated  questions.  These  ques- 
tions cluster  about  the  distinction  between  discrete  and  continu- 
ous scores.  The  significance  of  this  distinction  is  such  that  no 
one  can  determine  the  median  until  he  knows  the  meaning  of  his 
scores. 

What  is  meant  by  discrete  scores?  Substitute,  in  Table  III, 
family  for  pupil,  and  number  of  children  in  school  for  score  and  the 
scores  in  Table  III  will  be  changed  from  continuous  to  discrete. 
Table  III  would  then  read:  family  h  has  three  children  in  school, 
family  e  has  four  children  in  school,  and  so  on.  The  median 
number  of  children  in  school  from  any  one  family  could  not 
possibly  be  8.5.  Such  vivisection  of  a  child  into  halves  would  be 
statistical  murder!  According  to  the  principle  that  .5  or  above 
should  be  called  I.,  the  median  is  9.  Discrete  scores  require  no 
departure  from  Methods  1 2  or  IV.  When  Method  IV  yields  a 
number  with  a  decimal  in  it,  the  median  may  be  corrected  for 
obvious  absurdity  by  considering  it  as  the  nearest  whole  number. 

What  is  meant  by  continuous  measures?  The  measurements 
of  time,  distance,  weight,  ability  in  addition,  penmanship,  spelling 
and  the  like  are  continuous.  Measurement  of  the  number  of 
children  and  the  like  are  discrete,  because  there  are  gaps  between 

2  Method  V  may  be  applied  to  discrete  scores  when  they  are  grouped  into  a 
frequency  distribution  whose  step-intervals  are  larger  than  one  unit.  The  effect 
of  such  grouping  is  to  make  them  psuedo-continuous. 


HOW   TO   COMPUTE   THE   MEDIAN  127 

the  various  scores.  We  must  say  2  children,  3  children,  etc.,  with 
no  intervening  step.  We  cannot  say  2.1  children,  2.2  children. 
But  we  can  say  2  hrs.  20  min.  16  sec.,  or  3  Ibs.  8.5  oz.,  or  6.72 
examples  in  arithmetic.  Measurements  are  continuous  when  the 
fact  being  measured  is  infinitely  divisible. 

But  it  is  not  sufficient  for  statistical  computation  to  know  that 
the  data  dealt  with  are  continuous.  It  is  necessary  to  know  from 
what  point  to  what  point  each  score-interval  is  continuous.  The 
spread  of  each  score-interval  is  determined  by  the  method  of 
scoring.  Given  this  method  of  scoring,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to 
determine  the  spread.  Courtis  directs  that  no  pupil  is  to  receive 
credit  for  an  example  which  is  only  partly  finished,  even  though 
the  pupil  has  nine-tenths  of  an  example  done  correctly  when  time 
is  called.  Consequently  the  pupil  will  be  scored,  say,  7,  when  his 
real  score  is  7.9  or  possibly  7.943.  Hence,  a  score  of  7  means  7  to 
7.9999,  etc.,  or,  as  it  will  henceforth  be  expressed,  7  to  8,  or  7-8; 
a  score  of  8  means  8  to  9,  and  so  on.  Had  Courtis  directed  that 
each  pupil  finishing  half  or  more  of  an  example  should  receive 
complete  credit,  7  would  mean  6.5-74999,  etc.;  $  would  mean 
7.5-8.5,  and  so  on.  Had  Courtis  directed  that  each  pupil  finishing 
the  slightest  portion  of  an  example  should  receive  credit  for  that 
example,  7  would  mean  6.0-6.9999,  etc.,  or  6.0-7.0.  Suppose, 
further,  that  Courtis  had  directed  that  each  pupil  receive  a  credit 
of  two  points  for  each  example  correctly  and  completely  done; 
then  a  score  of  6  would  mean,  not  6-7,  but  6-8,  and  a  score  of  8 
would  mean  8-10.  In  summary,  it  is  necessary  to  answer  two 
questions  before  beginning  to  compute  a  median,  or  any  other 
measure  for  that  matter:  Are  the  scores  discrete  or  continuous? 
If  continuous,  what  is  the  spread  of  each  score? 

What  is  the  influence  of  continuous  scores  upon  the  computa- 
tion of  the  median?  They  have  no  influence  whatever.  Like 
discrete  scores,  continuous  scores  require  no  departure  from 
Method  I  or  Method  IV.  It  is  important  for  the  reader  to  keep 
this  in  mind  if  he  is  to  think  clearly  about  the  computation  of  the 
median.  The  methods  yet  to  be  described  are  not  new  methods 
of  computing  the  median,  as  is  frequently  supposed.  They  are 
merely  devices  for  correcting  crude  scoring.  If  it  were  convenient 
to  determine,  while  scoring  a  pupil's  paper,  that  his  exact  score 
is,  say,  7.493  instead  of  merely  tabulating  it  as  7,  the  median 


128  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

should  be  computed  according  to  Method  I  or  Method  IV.  But 
test  scoring  is  usually  so  crude  that  it  is  highly  desirable  that  an 
attempt  be  made  to  correct  for  crude  scoring  by  statistical 
methods.  Let  us  illustrate  the  principle  of  the  new  methods 
before  demonstrating  them.  Table  IV  gives  scores  on  the 
Courtis  Addition  Test,  scored  according  to  his  directions. 

TABLE  IV 

Pupil  abcdefghijkl  m  n  o 
Score  344556666677789 

Since  there  is  an  odd  number  of  pupils,  Method  I  is  applicable. 
But  before  applying  Method  I  the  scores  should  be  corrected  for 
crudeness.  The  scores  are  continuous  and  a  score  of  6  lies  some- 
where between  6.0  to  6.999,  etc.,  or  from  6.0  to  7.o.3  There  are 
five  scores  of  6.  We  do  not  know  how  nearly  these  five  pupils 
came  to  completing  the  seventh  problem.  The  most  convenient 
guess  is  that  they  are  distributed  evenly  over  the  interval  6-7. 
The  fifteen  scores  of  Table  IV  are  re-expressed  below  in  terms  of 
their  most  probable  location. 

TABLE  V 

3-4,  4-4.5,  4.5-5,  5-5.5,  5.5-6,  6-6.2,  6.2-6.4,  6.4-6.6,  6.6-6.8, 
6.8-7,  7-7-33^,  7-33K-7-66^,  7-66^-8,  8-9,  9-10 

According  to  Method  I,  the  middle  score  is  in  the  interval 
6.4-6.6.  The  most  likely  location  of  this  score  is  at  the  mid-point 
of  the  interval  6.4-6.6  or  at  6.5.  Hence,  the  interpolated  median 
is  6.5.  Without  attempting  to  refine  the  scores  Method  I  would 
yield  a  median  of  6.0.  But  the  chances  are  far  greater  that  the 
real  median  would  be,  by  more  accurate  scoring,  nearer  6.5  than 
6.0. 

What  would  be  the  median  if  there  were  another  score  of  9? 
This  would  make  sixteen  pupils,  and  Method  IV  would  be  appli- 
cable. The  median  would  be  midway  between  6.4-6.6  and  6.6-6.8. 
Obviously  the  median  would  be  the  average  of  6.5  and  6.7,  or  the 
junction-point  of  the  two  intervals,  that  is,  6.6.  But  suppose 

•We  might  just  as  well  have  chosen  a  test  where  6  means  not  6-7  but  5.5-6.5. 
In  that  case  Table  V  would  be:  2.5-3.5,  3-5~4»  4-4-5.  etc. 


HOW   TO    COMPUTE   THE   MEDIAN  129 

there  were  enough  scores  of  9  or  larger  to  make  a  total  of  twenty 
scores,  what  would  be  the  median?  This  would  give  for  the  two 
middle-most  score-intervals  6.8-7  and  7~7-33.^3-  The  average  of 
their  mid-points,  6.9  and  7.166  +  ,  would  be  7.033  +  .  Is  7.033  + 
or  7  the  median?  In  other  words,  shall  we  define  midway  between 
the  two  middle-most  score-intervals  as  the  average  of  the  two 
mid-points  or  as  the  junction-point  of  the  two  intervals?  The 
average  is  7.033+  while  the  junction  point  is  7. 

Either  of  the  above  alternatives  is  about  as  logical  as  the  other. 
The  traditional  definition  of  the  median  makes  it  that  measure 
above  which  and  below  which  is  an  equal  number  of  the  cases. 
But  since  no  middle  case  exists  when  there  is  an  even  number  of 
measures,  it  would  seem  that  the  median  should  be  called  that 
point  above  which  and  below  which  is  an  equal  number  of  the 
scores.  Changing  middle  score  to  middle  point  makes  the  defini- 
tion, as  Buckingham  points  out,  universally  applicable.  So 
changed,  the  definition  applies  to  discrete  or  continuous  scores 
and  to  an  odd  or  an  even  number  of  scores.  Now  the  interval 
6.8-7  terminates  at  point  7.0  and  the  interval  7-7.33^,  counting 
backward,  terminates  at  point  7.0.  Thus  logic  seems  to  favor  the 
junction  point  of  7.0  as  the  median,  if  we  think  of  a  score  as  repre- 
sented by  its  spread.  But  if  we  think  of  a  score  as  at  the  mid- 
point of  its  interval,  logic  favors  the  average  of  the  two  mid- 
points, namely,  7.033  +  ,  as  the  median.  It  seems  to  the  writer 
that  the  latter  position  is  slightly  more  defensible.  But  practical 
convenience  enormously  outweighs  the  slight  difference  in- 
volved, at  least  for  those  who  are  not  engaged  in  extremely  refined 
research  and  equally  refined  statistical  computation.  All  the 
methods  simple  enough  for  common  use  assume  the  junction- 
point.  For  general  practice,  then,  we  favor  the  junction-point. 

Another  situation  remains  to  be  considered.  Continue  our  last 
supposition  of  twenty  scores,  but  imagine  that  the  two  middle- 
most intervals  are  6.8-7  and  8-9  with  no  score  at  all  between  7 
and  8.  This  situation  frequently  arises.  Now,  what  is  the 
median?  There  is  no  junction-point  since  the  lower  interval 
terminates  at  7.0  and  the  upper  interval  terminates  at  8.0.  Rugg 
very  wisely  tells  us  that  a  median  from  such  a  situation  as  this  is 
not  worth  worrying  much  about.  But  we  need  to  agree  upon  how 
to  deal  with  the  problem.  Common  sense  suggests  that  all  blank 


130 


TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 


intervals  be  apportioned  equally  to  the  lower  and  upper  score- 
intervals.    This  gives  a  median  of  7.5. 

A  final  problem.  Throughout  this  discussion  we  have  assumed 
that  scores  are  distributed  evenly  over  the  score-interval.  For 
example,  we  assigned  to  each  of  the  five  scores  of  6  in  Table  IV  an 
interval  of  .2.  The  statistical  methods  to  be  described  assume  this 
even  distribution.  But  a  closer  bunching  of  scores  just  below  our 

METHOD  V 


Exam. 

Freq. 

Computation 

3-4 

I 

-   =  —  =  7-5 

2             2 

4-5 

2 

Counting  down  the  "Freq."  column 

5-6 

2 

7.5  =  i  -f-  2  -h  2  -f-  2.5  (of  the  5  scores  of  6-7) 

6-7 

5 

2  S 

The  median  is  —  —  of  6  to  7  above  6 

7-8 

3 

5 

8-9 

i 

Median  =  6  +  (^  of  6  to  7) 
5 

9~IO 

i 

=  6  -f-  (?l§  of  i) 

N 

15 

=  6.5 

median  score-interval  and  a  thinning  out  just  above  make  it 
probable  that  the  true  median  score  falls  somewhat  below  the 
mid-point  of  its  interval  instead  of  at  the  mid-point.  To  take 
the  shape  of  the  frequency  curve  into  consideration,  when  com- 
puting the  median,  is  a  complicated  matter.  The  practice  of  the 
methods  for  doing  this  will  for  some  time  be  the  peculiar  privilege 
of  the  statistical  "sharks,"  and  hence  need  concern  us  no  further 
in  this  article.  Most  readers  who  have  had  sufficient  will-power  to 
progress  to  this  point  in  our  discussion  are  doubtless  satisfied  that 
the  program  already  proposed  is  quite  sufficient. 

Method  V  4  applied  to  the  scores  of  Table  IV  shows  that  the 
statistical  process  of  computing  a  median  and  refining  crude  scor- 
ing at  one  stroke  is  a  very  simple  matter  after  all.  We  have  thrown 

4  See  such  books  on  Statistics  as  those  by  Thorndike  and  Rugg, 


HOW  TO   COMPUTE   THE   MEDIAN  131 

the  scores  of  Table  V  from  an  order  distribution  into  a  frequency 
distribution.  Even  this  is  not  necessary  but  it  is  more  convenient. 

Thus  Method  V  gives  the  same  median  as  was  gotten  by  the 
more  elaborate  process  of  spacing  off  the  score-intervals. 

Some  individuals  prefer  to  compute  the  median  by  means  of  a 
formula.  The  process  of  Method  V  is  condensed  below  into 
Kelley's  formula  for  computing  the  median.  The  writer  is  in- 
debted to  Professor  Kelley  for  this  description: 

"The  calculation  of  the  median  may  be  expressed  in  a  formula 
as  follows: 

1.  Let  N  =  the  total  number  of  cases,  or  the  sum  of  the 
frequencies  of  all  the  classes.  ^    , 

2.  Determine  the  class  in  which  the  -  measure  lies.     If 

2 

it  lies  between  two  classes,  as  sometimes  happens  when  N  is 
even,  the  common  boundary  of  these  two  classes  is  the  median 
and  no  further  calculation  is  necessary. 

3.  Let/  =  the  frequency  of  this  class. 

4.  Let  i  =  the  class  interval,  or  range  covered  by  the  median  class. 

5.  Let  F  =  the  sum  of  the  frequencies  of  all  the  classes  below 
(or  above)  this  class. 

6.  Let  v  =  the  value  of  the  lower  (or  upper)  boundary  of  this  class. 

7.  Let  Mdn  =  the  median  value. 

N 

--  F        (Calculated  from  below  up,  or 

Then  Mdn  =  v  +   -  _  •  *     S°mg  from  sma11  values  to  large 
/  values) 


Also    Mdn  =  v  —  —  -  *  (Calculated  from  above  down) 

/ 

These  two  values  of  Mdn  are,  of  course,  identical. 
Using  this  formula  upon  the  preceding  example  and  calculating 
from  below  up,  gives: 
N  =  i5 
The  median  class  is  6-7  examples 

/    =5 

i    =  i.oo 

F  =  5  (i  +  2  +  2) 

v    =  6.00 


132  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 


2 

Substituting  Mdn  =  6.00  +  -  i-oo  =  6.50 

5 
The  same  example  calculated  from  above  down  gives: 

N  =  15,  /  =  5»  *  =  i  -oo,  F  =  5  (i  +  i  +  3),  v  =  7.00 

15 

—     "   o 

Substituting  Mdn  =  7.00  —  —     —   i.oo  =  6.50" 

o 
The  median  was  located  in  Methods  I  and  IV  by  the  formula 

N  +  I.     It  was  located  in  Method  V  by  the  formula  ^.     The 

2  2* 

N  +  i 

formula  -        -  must  not  be  used  with  Method  V.    Kelley's  use  of 
2 

N  +  i 

-  in  solving  his  formula  is  legitimate.     Kelley's  formula 
2 

yields  the  same  median  as  Method  V.  A  close  study  of  Method 
V  and  Kelley's  formula  will  show  why  its  use  in  one  place  is 
legitimate,  while  in  the  other  place  it  is  wrong.  Courtis  5  has  used 

N  +  i 

-  with  Method  V  but  he  seems  to  have  done  so  consciously 

2 

to  avoid  working  with  fractions.  Sechrist  6  has  made  the  same 
error  and  aggravates  the  error  on  the  next  page  by  attempting  to 

N  +  i 

apply  -  to  the  computation  of  quartile  points  as  well.     If 
2 

N  +  i 

we  use  it  in  connection  with  Method  V  above,  -    -  equals  8. 

2 

Counting  down  the  frequency  column,  8  gives  an  interpolated 
median  of  6.6.  But  we  have  already  shown  that  6.5  and  not  6.6 

N  +  i 

is  the  truer  median.    Methods  I  and  IV  employed  —      —  because 

2 

N  +  i 

there  we  were  seeking  the  middle  score  and  -  •  —  gives  us  the 

2 

6  Courtis,  S.  A.,  Annual  Accounting,  1913-10,16,  p.  35.  (82  Eliot  Street,  Detroit, 
Mich.) 

6  Sechrist,  H.,  An  Introduction  to  Statistical  Method,  pp.  260-263.  (The  Macmillan 
Company,  1917.) 


HOW   TO   COMPUTE   THE   MEDIAN 


133 


ordinal  number  of  this  middle  score.     Method  V  does  not  seek 
the  middle  score  so  much  as  it  seeks  the  middle  or  median  point. 

N 

For  this  purpose  —  is  preferable  unless  Kelley's  formula  is  used. 
2 

N 

Furthermore,  —  has  the  advantage  of  yielding  the  same  median 
2 

irrespective  of  the  direction  in  which  the  counting  is  done.    This 
is  illustrated  below. 


Exam. 

Freq. 

Computation 

10-9 

I 

N 

9-8 

I 

-  =  7-5 

8-7 

3 

Counting  down   the   "Freq."  column, 

7-6 

5 

7.5  =  i  +  i  +  3  +  2.5  (of  the  5  scores  of  7-6) 

6-5 

2 

Median  =  7  -  •    (—  of  7  to  6) 

5 

5-4 

2 

2   ^ 

=  7  -    (-5  of  i) 

4-3 

I 

5 

=  6.5 

N 

15 

CONCLUSION 

In  conclusion  the  writer  recommends  the  following  definition 
of  a  practical  median:  When  measures  are  arranged  in  order  of 
size,  the  median  is  the  middle  measure  or  (lacking  a  middle  measure] 
midway  between  the  two  middle-most  measures.  It  is  understood 
that  when  the  measures  are  continuous,  middle  measure  means 
the  mid-point  of  the  middle  score- interval  after  the  scores  have 
been  refined  for  crude  scoring,  as  in  Table  V.  It  is  also  under- 
stood that  midway  means  the  average  (corrected  for  absurdity) 
of  the  two  middle-most  scores  when  scores  are  discrete,  and  the 
junction-point  of  the  two  middle-most  score-intervals  when 
measures  are  continuous.  If  there  is  a  gap  instead  of  a  junction- 
point,  half  the  space  of  the  gap  should  be  added  to  the  lower 
score-interval  and  half  to  the  upper  score-interval. 


134 


TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 


When  measures  are  discrete  these  conditions  are  satisfied  by 
Method  I  or  Method  IV.  When  measures  are  continuous  the 
conditions  are  satisfied  by  Method  V.7  A  few  of  these  conditions 
are  somewhat  arbitrary,  and  hence  should  be  passed  upon  and 
conventionalized  by  some  authorized  organization.  The  writer 
believes,  however,  that  in  every  instance  where  perfect  theory  has 
been  sacrificed,  it  has  not  been  sacrificed  to  personal  bias  but  to 
undoubted  convenience.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  conditions 
are  arbitrary. 

ILL.  i.   SCORES  GROUPED  IN  STEP-INTERVALS  OF  Two.    SAMPLE 
SCORES:    2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  etc. 


Exam. 

Freq. 

Computation 

2-4 

3 

N 
-  =  7-5 

2 

4-6 

7 

Counting  down  the  "Freq." 

column, 

7-5  =  3 

+  4.5  (of  the  7  scores  of  4-6) 

6-8 

4 

Median  = 

4  +    (—  of  4  to 

6) 

8-10 

i 

7 

= 

4+    (—of  2) 

7 

N 

15 

= 

5.29  or  5.3 

Methods  I  and  IV  need  no  further  illustration,  so  the  remainder 
of  this  article  is  devoted  to  the  application  of  Method  V  to  a 
variety  of  situations. 

Some  tests  are  so  scored  or  some  data  are  so  collected  that  6 
means  6  —  7.  Such,  for  example,  is  the  Courtis  test  already  de- 

7  When  an  approximate  median  is  all  that  is  desired,  continuous  scores  may  be 
treated  as  discrete  and  dealt  with  by  Methods  I  and  IV.  Use  Method  V  when 
results  are  to  be  published.  Also  discrete  scores  may  be  grouped  into  larger 
intervals,  such  as  in  Illustration  I,  and  treated  as  though  pseudo-continuous;  then 
Method  V  would  apply  in  computing  the  median. 

There  are  times  when  the  computation  is  only  for  inspectional  purposes,  o* 
when  the  cases  are  very  few  or  when  the  concentration  about  the  median  point  la 
very  slight,  or  when,  for  some  reasons,  the  results  are  known  to  be  very  unreliable. 
In  all  such  cases  the  refinements  of  Method  V  may  not  be  worth  the  trouble,  even 
when  the  scores  are  continuous,  At  the,  same  time  it  should  be  remembered  that 
Method  V  is  just  about  as  easy  and  rapid  as  Methods  I  and  IV. 


HOW   TO   COMPUTE   THE   MEDIAN 


135 


scribed.  Judgment  scales,  like  the  Thorndike  Handwriting  Scale, 
are  usually  so  scored  that  6  means  5.5  —  6.5.  Why  a  score  on  a 
judgment  scale  usually  has  a  different  spread  is  easily  explained. 
Imagine  a  handwriting  scale  with  ten  specimens  of  handwriting 
with  values:  o,  1,2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9.  If  a  pupil's  penmanship 
specimen  is  more  like  6  in  merit  than  like  either  5  or  7,  it  is 
usually  scored  6.  If  the  specimen  is  5.5,  it  is  scored  6.  If  it  is 

ILL.  II.  SCORES  ACCORDING  TO  THE  THORNDIKE  HANDWRITING 
SCALE.    SAMPLE  SCORES:    7,  8,  9,  10,  ETC. 


Quality 

Freq. 

Computation 

6-5-  7-5 

I 

N  =6 

2 

7-5-  8.5 
8-5-  9-5 

2 

3 

Counting    down 

the     "Freq."    column, 
+  o  (of  the  4  scores  of 

9-5-10-5 
10.5-11.5 

4 

2 

9-5-IO-5) 
Median  =  9.5  + 

=  9-5  + 
=  9.5 

(-  of  9.5  to  10.5) 

4 

(-of  i.o) 
4 

N 

12 

5.7  it  is  scored  6.  If  it  is  6.3,  it  is  scored  6.  If  it  is  6.48,  it  is 
scored  6.  In  sum,  if  it  is  anywhere  between  5.5  and  6.499,  *t  is 
scored  6.  Hence  6  means  5.5-6.5,  7  means  6.5-7.5,  etc- 

Dr.  Kelley  has  made  the  suggestion  that  every  continuous 
score  should  be  treated  as  extending  from  halfway  between  itself 
and  the  preceding  score  to  halfway  between  itself  and  the  suc- 
ceeding score,  according  to  111.  II  and  III.  To  do  so  \vould  make 
the  median  comparable  to  the  good,  old-fashioned  average  got 
by  dividing  the  sum  of  the  scores  by  their  number,  and  thus 
facilitate  the  computation  of  skewness.  The  writer  agrees  with 
Dr.  Kelley  to  the  extent  that,  for  the  sake  of  greater  simplifica- 
tion, we  should  arbitrarily  fix  the  spread  of  each  score-interval 
without  regard  to  the  method  of  scoring.  Dr.  Kelley's  sugges- 


136 


TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 


tion,  while  valuable,  runs  counter  to  such  a  deeply-rooted  prac- 
tice and  is  so  arbitrary  that  the  writer  does  not  feel  the  time  has 
come  to  recommend  it.  But  the  writer  does  feel  free  to  urge  all 
to  hold  themselves  ready  to  adopt  a  uniform  practice  when  the 
call  from  authoritative  organizations  comes. 


ILL.    III.  SCORES   ACCORDING   TO   THE   AYRES   HANDWRITING 
SCALE.    SAMPLE  SCORES:    40,  50,  60,  70,  ETC. 


Quality 

Freq. 

Computation 

35-45 

2 

N 
—  =  5.5 

2 

45-55 

3 

Counting   down    the     "Freq. 

column, 

55-65 

0 

5-5  =  2   +  3  +  -5  (of  the 

4  scores  of 

65-75) 

65-75 

4 

75-85 

i 

Median  =  65  +    (-  of  65  to 
4 

75) 

85-95 

i 

=  65  4-    (-  of  10) 

4 

N 

ii 

=  66.25  or  66.3 

ILL.  IV.  SCORES  ACCORDING  TO  NASSAU  COUNTY  COMPOSITION 
SCALE.    SAMPLE  SCORES:  o,  i.i,  1.9,  2.8,  3.8,  5.0,  ETC. 


Quality 

Freq. 

Computation 

.55-L5 

I 

N  =6 

1-5  -2-35 

0 
2 

2 

Counting     down    the    "Freq."    column, 
6  =  i  +  o  +  2  +  3  (of  the  4  scores  of 

3.3  -44 

4 

3.3-44) 

44  -5-5 
5-5  -6.6 

3 

2 

Median  =  3.3  +  (-  of  i.i) 
4 
=  3-3  +  .825 
=  4.125  or  4.1 

N 

12 

HOW   TO   COMPUTE   THE   MEDIAN 


137 


Occasionally  pupil  scores  are  reported  in  terms  of  some  judg- 
ment scale,  like  the  Nassau  County  Composition  Scale,  whose 
steps  are  irregular.  For  such  scales  the  computation  is  shown  in 
111.  IV  above. 

111.  V  shows  how  to  deal  with  a  gap  in  the  scores.  The  reader 
should  compare  111.  V  with  111.  II  and  III  in  order  not  to  get 

ILL.  V.  SCORES  ACCORDING  TO  THE  Wooov-McCALL  MIXED 

FUNDAMENTALS  OF  ARITHMETIC.    SAMPLE 

SCORES.    3,  4,  5,  6,  ETC. 


Quality 

Freq. 

Computation 

3-4 

I 

N 

4-5 

0 

2 

5-6 

I 

Counting    down    the    "Freq."    column, 

6-7 

3 

5  =  1+0+1+3  and  o  (of  the  2 
scores  of  8-9) 

7-8 

0 

Q 

8-9 

2 

Median  =  7.5  +    (-  of  7.5  to  9) 

2 

9-10 

2 

-  7-5  +  (-  of  1.5) 

10-11 

I 

2 

N 

10 

ILL.  VI.   FREQUENCY  OF  FAMILIES  WITH  A  GIVEN  NUMBER  OF 
PUPILS  IN  SCHOOL.    METHOD  I 


Pupils 

Freq. 

Computation 

I 

2O 

Since  there  are  67  families,  the  middle 

2 

30 

family  is  the  34th 

3 

10 

Counting  down  the  "Freq."  column,  the 

4 

5 

34th  family  is  somewhere  among  the 

t: 

2 

30  families  with  two  pupils  each   in 

school.     Hence, 

N 

67 

Median  =  2  pupils  per  family 

138 


TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 


confused.  111.  V  shows  a  gap  at  the  7-8  interval.  In  all  such  cases 
half  the  space  of  the  gap-interval  goes  to  the  score-interval  just 
below  it  and  half  to  the  score-interval  just  above  it,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  Were  there  a  gap  of  two  score-intervals,  the 
lower  gap-interval  would  go  to  the  score-interval  just  below,  and 
the  upper  gap-interval  would  go  to  the  score-interval  just  above. 
Lest  anyone  should  think  that  frequency  distributions  are 
useful  only  in  connection  with  continuous  scores  and  Method 
V,  111.  VI  and  VII  are  given,  showing  the  computation  of  a 
median  of  discrete  measures. 


ILL.  VII.  NATURE  OF  DATA  AS  IN  ILLUSTRATION  VI.  METHOD  IV 


Pupils 

Freq. 

C0w£wtofo'0« 

I 

5 

Since  the  number  of  families  is  an  even 

2 

8 

26,  there  is  no  middle  family.  The  I3th 

family,    counting    down    the    "Freq." 

3 

6 

column,  has  2  pupils.    The  I3th  family, 

4 

4 

counting   up,    has   3    pupils.      Hence, 

5 

3 

2 

swer    is    absurd    the   median    can    be 

N 

26 

taken  as  either  2  or  3  pupils  per  family. 

SOME  REFERENCES  TO  MORE  ELABORATE  METHODS 
OF  COMPUTING  THE  MEDIAN 

ZIZEK,  PERSONS.  Statistical  Averages.  (Henry  Holt  and  Co.,  New  York.) 
BOWLEY.   Elements  of  Statistics.    (Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York.) 
YULE.  An  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of  Statistics.  (C.  Griffin  and  Co.,  London.) 


TEACHING  THROUGH  THE  USE  OF  PROJECTS 
OR  PURPOSEFUL  ACTS  * 

How  PROVIDE  FOR  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
FUNDAMENTAL  SKILLS? 

By  STUART  A.  COURTIS 

Director  of  Educational  Research,  Detroit  Public  Schools 

The  topic  assigned  me  in  this  morning's  discussion  is  an  im- 
portant one  because  it  deals  with  a  question  which,  more  fre- 
quently than  any  other,  rises  in  a  teacher's  or  a  superintendent's 
mind  when  he  is  "on  the  fence"  and  has  not  yet  decided  on  which 
side  to  get  down.  He  may  be  conscious  of  the  mechanical  and"} 
deadening  character  of  the  drill  work  in  his  own  school  system, f 
he  may  admit  the  essential  value  of  "interest"  and  "purpose"  in 
children's  activities,  he  may  even  earnestly  desire  a  greater 
freedom  and  a  more  democratic  spirit  in  his  class  rooms;  but 
the  thought  which  is  potent  to  inhibit  these,  and  many  other  in- 
fluences which  make  for  the  adoption  of  the  project  method,  is 
precisely  the  fear  that  the  new  type  of  work  will  not  provide  for 
the  adequate  development  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic, 
and  of  those  other  fundamental  skills  so  cherished  by  the  Ameri- 
can public — spelling,  geography,  and  English  composition. 

The  advocate  of  the  project  method  who  ignores  this  fear,  or 
treats  it  with  contempt,  is  either  ignorant  of  the  practical  situa- 
tion in  American  education  to-day,  or  unfair  to  the  average 
schoolman.  In  either  case  his  action  is  most  unwise  and  operates 
more  effectively  to  retard  the  spread  of  the  project  method  than 
the  unjust  criticisms  of  the  worst  enemies  of  the  method.  The 
situation  must  be  faced  squarely  and  the  superintendent's  ques- 
tion adequately  answered. 

Consider  for  a  moment  public  pressure  for  results.  We  say 
education  is  a  basic  American  ideal  because  Americans  from  the 
very  first,  and  up  to  the  present  moment,  have  regarded  educa- 

*  Address  given  at  Teachers  College  Alumni  Conferences,  1919. 

139 


140  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

tion  as  essential  to  the  life  of  the  republic.  This  means  that  every 
true  American  has  felt  that  if  proper  educational  opportunities 
were  provided,  all  would  be  well.  He  has  been  quite  willing  to 
turn  the  actual  teaching  over  to  schoolmasters,  but  he  has  ex- 
pected their  efforts  to  function  in  the  struggle  for  progress  in 
American  life,  and  in  the  pursuit  of  happiness  by  the  individual. 
When  things  go  wrong  anywhere  in  the  social  order,  he,  quite 
consistently,  has  a  tendency  to  feel  that  the  trouble  must  be 
sought  back  in  the  school,  so  he  begins  to  examine  his  children 
to  see  whether  or  not  the  schoolmasters  are  doing  the  work  for 
which  he  has  paid  them.  Not  knowing  what  to  look  for,  he 
seizes  upon  the  most  evident  products  of  education.  "Knowledge 
is  power"  he  thinks,  and  he  judges  accordingly.  Read  any  lay 
criticism  of  the  schools,  past  or  present,  and  see  how  unvaryingly 
it  is  based  upon  discoveries  of  deficiencies  of  either  knowledge 
or  skill. 

Indecent  years  educational  measurement  has  aggravated  the 
situation.  For  measurement  has  made  it  easier  to  discover 
educational  deficiencies  and  to  measure  their  extent.  Every 
superintendent  these  days  knows  that  at  any  time  the  survey 
lightning  may  strike  close  at  home  and  that  if  it  does,  it  is  "re- 
sults" to  which  attention  will  be  directed.  Many  of  us  value  the 
project  method  because  we  believe  it  changes  the  educational 
perspective  of  the  teacher,  and  directs  her  attention  to  children 
instead  of  to  results.  But  there  is  no  escape  from  the  fact  that 
the  project  method,  or  any  other  method  for  that  matter,  is,  in 
the  last  analysis,  a  method  of  securing  results,  and  that  no  school 
man  whose  bread  and  butter  depends  upon  his  meeting  the  de- 
mands of  those  who  pay  his  salary,  can  afford  for  one  instant  to 
neglect  a  consideration  of  what  the  tangible  outcomes  of  the 
adoption  of  the  project  method  will  be. 

Put  yourself  in  the  place  of  the  average  American  city  superin- 
tendent to-day.  He  knows  that  his  teachers  are  working  under 
great  pressure  and  on  the  whole  doing  their  best  as  they  see  it. 
He  knows  that  his  courses  of  study  have  been  elaborately  and 
carefully  worked  out,  and  that  much  time  and  effort  is  given  to 
drill  and  review.  He  knows,  further,  that  his  present  results  are 
very  unsatisfactory  and  will  not  bear  close  scrutiny  except  by 
comparison  with  the  poor  work  that  other  school  systems  are 


TEACHING  THROUGH  THE  USE  OF  PROJECTS          141 

doing.  He  knows  that  eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  such 
efficiency  as  he  now  has,  and  that  to  relax  for  one  moment  the 
effort  and  care  he  is  expending  in  keeping  the  wheels  turning 
smoothly,  means  an  immediate  running  down  of  the  quality  of  his 
output. 

Then  he  hears  of  the  project  method.  He  sees  a  demonstration 
lesson.  The  theory  appeals  to  his  common  sense.  The  promised 
outcome  seems  desirable.  He  notes,  however,  the  real  or  apparent 
disorganization  of  subject  matter  and  the  absence  of  drill. 
Doubts  arise.  He  looks  for  proof  that  the  project  method  will 
be  effective  in  producing  the  results  he  is  expected  to  achieve. 
What  does  he  find?  He  reads  the  TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD  for 
November  and  studies  the  scores  of  the  Horace  Mann  School. 
It  is  not  a  clear,  reassuring  record.  He  reads  the  Gary  survey. 
It  is  even  more  disturbing.  He  looks,  and  looks  in  vain,  for 
experimental  evidence  that  the  new  method  has  anywhere  de- 
veloped degrees  of  skill  equal  to  those  which  he  has  already 
adopted  as  desirable  standards.  Too  often  his  conclusion  is, 
"The  project  method  may  be  all  right  for  private  or  experi- 
mental schools,  but  I  simply  can't  afford  to  run  any  risks.  I 
will  stick  to  the  old  ways  a  little  longer." 

Face  to  face  with  these  conditions,  two  courses  are  open  to 
those  who  believe  that  the  project  method  is  the  ultimate  method. 
One  is  to  prove  that  present  standards  of  knowledge  and  slcill 
are  altogether  too  high,  jto  try  to  educate  the~public  to 'the  ac- 
ceptance of  lower  standards  and  to  the  appraisahat  their  true 
worth  of  such  other  outcomes  of  the  method  as  there  may  be. 
The  other  is  to  frankly  set  before  themselves-  the-  desirability  of 
achieving  accepted  standards  of  knowledge  and  skill,  and  of 
proving  by  measurement  that  it  is  possible  to  attain  them  on  the 
project  basis. 

In  my  judgment  no  contribution  to  American' education  could 
be  made  which  would  have  greater  immediate  practical  value 
than  experimental  proof  by  measurement  that,  hour  for  hour,  the 
project  method  produces  larger  returns  than  compulsory  mechan- 
ical drills.  I  have  taken  the  time  to  emphasize  the  superintend- 
ent's viewpoint  because  I  feel  that  many  advocates  of  desirable 
changes  in  method  do  not  have  an  adequate  understanding  of 
the  part  this  viewpoint  plays  in  determining  the  attitude  of  the 


142  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

superintendent  toward  experimental  work  in  the  schools  under 
his  control.  Personally,  I  am  convinced  that  the  second  of  the 
courses  described  is  the  one  to  follow,  and  I  want  to  spend  the 
rest  of  my  time  this  morning  in  arraying  for  your  consideration 
the  principles  and  criteria  which  should  guide  us  in  our  experi- 
mental attempt  to  achieve  that  goal. 

The  first  of  the  questions  to  be  considered  is  this.  If  a  child 
works  industriously  all  his  school  days  at  projects  of  value  which 
interest  him,  may  he  reasonably  be  expected  to  acquire  therefrom 
adequate  degrees  of  the  knowledges  and  skills  involved?  The 
answer  is  not  as  simple  as  it  would  appear  to  be.  We  "learn  to  do 
by  doing,"  to  be  sure,  but  we  do  not  necessarily  learn  the  best 
ways  of  doing  things,  nor  do  we  necessarily  acquire  from  our 
activity  degrees  of  skill  which  are  adequate.  For  instance,  I 
know  an  illiterate  man  who  for  many  years  barely  made  his 
living  by  keeping  a  grocery  store  in  an  isolated  community. 
He  could  add,  subtract,  multiply,  divide,  and  make  change  by 
some  practical  method  of  his  own,  but  when  competition  ap- 
peared his  store  was  quickly  eliminated.  In  this  case  the  activity, 
although  fully  motivated,  failed  to  evolve  adequate  control  over 
the  conventional  number  system  and  symbols. 

Another  man  I  know,  a  college  graduate,  is  very  fond  of  read- 
ing. He  reads  a  great  deal  but  with  difficulty.  Somewhere  in 
his  development  he  acquired  faulty  habits  of  eye  movement. 
The  more  he  reads,  the  more  firmly  he  establishes  the  wrong 
habits.  In  this  case  neither  education  nor  purposeful  activity, 
in  and  of  itself,  has  operated  to  produce  desirable  results. 

What  about  writing?  Most  of  you  are  writing  every  day.  Is 
the  rate  and  quality  of  your  handwriting  improving  because  of 
its  use  in  the  purposeful  activity?  Mine  isn't.  I  have  already 
planned  that  when  I  get  back  to  Detroit  I  shall  again  revert  to 
drill  to  offset  the  undesirable  effects  of  rapid  note-taking  during 
this  year  of  study.  I  know  that  drill  for  that  purpose  will  be 
effective  because  it  has  so  operated  in  the  past. 

In  general  I  believe  this  principle  will  be  found  to  hold.  If 
the  knowledge  or  skill  is  of  such  a  character  that  undesirable  re- 
sults follow  directly  from  failure,  purposeful  activity  may  be 
depended  upon  to  build  up  slowly,  by  trial  and  error  methods, 
correct  habits  and  adequate  degrees  of  skill.  But  if  the  operation 


TEACHING  THROUGH  THE  USE  OF  PROJECTS          143 

of  the  habit  or  skill  is  obscure,  so  that  cause  and  effect  may  not 
be  easily  and  directly  traced,  mere  activity,  except  by  chance, 
will  not  produce  the  desired  result. 

For  instance,  many  of  you  know  that  you  do  not  read  as  rapidly 
or  as  understandingly  as  other  people.  How  many  of  you  could 
tell  whether  or  not  your  difficulty  is  caused  by  poor  habits  of 
eye-movement?  How  many  of  you  know  anything  at  all  about 
the  type  of  eye-movements  you  personally  employ  in  reading? 
On  the  other  hand,  all  of  us  learn  correct  habits  of  speaking  and  of 
spelling.  Very  poor  spellers  who  live  in  an  environment  of  good 
spellers  eventually  learn  to  spell  correctly  the  most  frequently 
occurring  words.  Even  adults  who  move  from  the  West  to  New 
York  soon  have  to  struggle  to  retain  their  Vs"  and  "a's". 

In  this  respect,  the  development  curves  for  such  abilities  as 
multiplication  and  spelling  are  of  markedly  different  character. 
At  Gary,  for  instance,  where  tests  of  the  elementary  school  were 
given  in  the  high  school  also,  the  eighth  grade  scores  in  spelling 
were  low  but  the  scores  on  the  same  words  rose  steadily  through 
high  school  years.  Ultimately  high  school  students  were  found 
who  spelled  the  eighth  grade  words  as  well  as  eighth  grade  chil- 
dren in  conventional  schools.  In  multiplication,  however,  ac- 
curacy of  work  was  not  only  low  in  the  eighth  grade  but  did  not  ^ 
rise  during  high  school  years,  showing,  it  seems  to  me,  that  as 
soon  as  direct  training  stopped  the  use  of  multiplication  in 
algebra,  physics,  etc.,  did  not  contribute  to  the  development  of 
further  skill.  The  first  step  in  the  solution  of  our  problem,  there- 
fore, is  to  determine  very  definitely  which  knowledges,  which 
habits,  which  skills,  and  what  degree  of  each,  may  be  left  safely 
to  the  incidental  selection  of  the  activities  themselves  and  which 
must  be  provided  for  systematically  by  special  training. 

There    are,    however,    other    considerations    whose    possible 
bearings  on  our  problem  need  to  be  kept  in  mind.    Our  civiliza- 1 
tion  is  the  product  of  an  age-long  evolution  in  which  the  best; 
solutions  for  our  common  problems  have  been  slowly  and  labori-1 
ously  built  up  by  the  master  minds  of  the  ages.    The  basic  func^ 
tion  of  the  school  is  to  transmit  this  social  inheritance  to  the  on- 
coming generation.    Other  things  being  equal,  the  more  efficiently 
this  duty  is  discharged,  the  greater  will  be  the  contribution  to 
the  social  progress  which  the  new  generation  will  make. 


144  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

From  this  point  of  view  the  school  must  not  only  see  to  it  that 
the  child  acquires  the  fundamental  skills,  but  also  that  he  wastes 
no  time  in  doing  so.  If  compulsory  drill  exercises  under  expert 
teaching  will  short-circuit  the  slow  evolutionary  development 
which  comes  from  the  use  of  skill  in  purposeful  activity,  then  not 
to  drill  a  child  is  to  handicap  both  him  and  society.  Here,  too, 
unfortunately,  we  can  reach  at  present  no  certain  conclusion; 
for  it  may  be  that  the  concomitant  and  accessory  effects  of  the 
evolutionary  development  are  of  more  value  than  the  efficiency 
which  the  drill  method  might  yield.  For  instance,  if  drill  neces1 
sarily  tended  to  the  suppression  of  personality,  and  purposeful 
activity  to  its  development  and  expansion,  we  could  not  afford 
to  achieve  efficiency  by  drill  methods.  The  crucial  experiment 
on  this  point  has  yet  to  be  made. 

One  of  the  important  considerations  often  overlooked  is  that 
no  two  children  are  exactly  alike  or  learn  in  exactly  the  same  way. 
On  this  point  scientific  investigation  is  very  clear  in  its  conclu- 
sions. No  two  individuals  profit  to  the  same  degree  by  any 
activity,  or  in  the  same  way,  or  at  the  same  rate,  or  uniformly 
at  all  times.  ^Even  for  any  one  individual  different  methods  of 
learning  may  be  needed  for  two  types  of  activities  as  closely  related 
as  addition  and  division. \Learning  by  doing  provides  for  such 
individual  adjustment  while  conventional  class  drills  do  not.  On 
first  thought  the  necessity  for  making  adjustment  for  individual 
differences  would  seem  to  be  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the 
use  of  class  drills  and  an  unanswerable  argument  in  favor  of  the 
project  method,  but  really  it  is  not.  Measurement  has  made 
possible  complete  individual  adjustment  in  group  drills. 

So  far  we  have  not  discussed  the  effect  of  the  most  important 
element  of  the  project  method;  that  of  purpose  or  motive. 
Here  measurement  again  bears  witness  in  no  uncertain  way  to 
the  utter  futility  of  mere  drill  as  a  method  of  teaching.  We  do 
not  have  to  guess  at  the  efficiency  of  unmotivated  drill.  We 
know,  both  in  terms  of  general  progress  and  in  terms  of  individual 
growths,  just  what  our  schools  are  accomplishing  at  present. 
For  instance,  on  the  basis  of  tests  the  country  over  it  is  possible 
to  say  that  out  of  every  thousand  children  practicing  handwriting 
from  75  to  100  minutes  a  week,  less  than  100  children  ordinarily 
show  a  real  improvement  as  a  result  of  a  year's  practice.  For 


TEACHING  THROUGH  THE  USE  OF  PROJECTS          145 

at  least  90  per  cent  of  the  children  the  time  spent  in  handwriting 
exercise  is  just  plain  waste;  while  for  very  many  of  them  the 
effects  of  the  drill  are  positively  evil.  Conventional  drills  in 
arithmetic  are  at  best  only  from  two  to  three  times  as  effective; 
while  the  data  of  both  Ayres  and  Buckingham  agree  in  showing 
that  drills  in  spelling,  the  most  effectively  taught  of  the  drill 
subjects,  affect  about  a  third  of  the  children.  That  is,  if  a  word  is 
taught  during  any  year,  about  one  third  of  the  children  who  could 
not  spell  it  correctly  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  can  spell  it  at 
the  beginning  of  the  next  year. 

The  other  day  in  my  reading  I  came  across  the  report  of  a  sur- 
vey in  1878  of  twenty-four  towns  in  Norfolk  County,  Mass. 
Among  other  figures  it  reported  the  number  of  fourth-grade 
children  who  spelled  correctly  "which"  and  "whose,"  two  words 
which  occur  in  the  Ayres  Scale.  For  "which,"  the  results  then 
were  69  per  cent  and  now  66  per  cent,  while  for  "whose"  the  figures 
then  were  54  per  cent,  now  58  per  cent.  That  is,  after  35  or  40 
years  of  progress  the  general  effectiveness  of  spelling  teaching  as 
measured  by  these  two  words  has  not  been  changed. 

Other  things  have  changed,  however.  In  a  survey  of  the  Boston 
schools  in  1845,  the  average  number  of  floggings  reported  for  one 
school  on  the  basis  of  a  week's  observations  was  65  per  day,  and 
it  is  explicitly  stated  that  this  is  not  an  exceptional  but  a  repre- 
sentative school.  If  with  compulsory  drills  backed  by  corporal 
punishment  the  schoolmasters  of  the  previous  generation  were 
unable  to  secure  any  better  results  in  even  the  mechanical  skills 
than  the  schools  of  the  present  day,  surely  there  is  reason  to 
hope  that  eventually  methods  still  more  humane  and  scientific 
will  replace  those  now  generally  employed.  It  seems  to  me  that 
the  progress  from  present  practice  to  an  almost  ideal  administra- 
tion of  the  project  method  does  not  involve  so  great  a  change  in 
viewpoint  as  the  change  that  was  made  from  the  methods  and 
curricula  of  seventy-five  years  ago  to  those  of  the  present  day. 

The  crux  of  the  matter  seems  to  be  that  the  old  adage,  "You 
can  lead  a  horse  to  water,  but  you  cannot  make  him  drink,"  holds 
in  educational  matters  also.  You  can  make  a  child  go  through 
the  motions  of  practicing,  but  you  cannot  make  the  effects  of  the 
practice  stick  in  his  nervous  system  unless  you  secure  the  consent 
of  the  governed.  It  is  not  alone  what  a  child  does  that  educates 


146  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

him;  the  motives  and  emotional  states  which  accompany  his 
activities  play  a  crucial  part.  A  child  may  be  compelled  by  force 
to  go  through  the  motions  of  an  addition  drill,  but  in  such  cases 
his  outward  activity  is  usually  accompanied  internally  by  the 
raging  resentment  of  an  outraged  personality,  and  by  a  deep- 
seated  conviction  that  the  activity  itself  is  valueless.  Under  such 
conditions  he  may  not  only  lose  in  both  speed  and  accuracy 
as  a  result  of  his  practice,  but  he  is  almost  certain  to  develop  a 
Bolshevistic,  rebellious  attitude  toward  the  entire  scheme  of 
things  educational,  and  a  personal  hatred  of  both  teacher  and 
A  subject. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  teachers  make  the  mistake  of  suppos- 
l— J  ing  that  any  drill  in  and  of  itself  is  valueless.  If  we  define  drill 
as  an  activity  carried  on  as  an  end  in  itself,  or  for  the  purpose  of. 
acquiring  control  over  the  activity,  and  not  for  its  products,  we 
find  a  great  deal  of  drill  in  life  outside  of  school.  Almost  all  play 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  drill.  The  kitten  chases  its  tail,  and 
the  baby  babbles  "da-da-da"  from  sheer  satisfaction  in  the 
activity.  Most  of  us  have  drilled  ourselves  in  the  use  of  certain 
strokes  in  tennis,  or  in  ways  of  holding  or  throwing  a  ball.  How 
many  of  you  learned  to  drive  an  automobile  by  driving  at  once 
through  a  busy  street?  Most  of  us  preferred  to  be  drilled  by  an 
expert  until  he  assured  us  we  were  competent  to  attempt  a  real 
drive.  I  can  find  nothing  intrinsically  wrong  with  drill.  Under  \ 
right  conditions  and  done  with  the  proper  motives,  it  is  one  of 
the  most  efficient  forms  of  educational  activity.  It  is  true  that/V. 
all  persons  do  not  need  drill.  Even  in  Gary  in  all  the  elementary 
grades  there  were  children  who  had  spent  their  entire  educational 
lives  in  the  Gary  schools,  yet  who  were  able  to  spell  perfectly  the 
tests  for  their  grade.  There  are  individuals  who  without  drill 
are  able  to  drive  an  automobile  or  an  aeroplane  the  first  time  they 
try  it,  who,  in  other  words,  learn  so  readily  by  doing  that  they 
need  no  other  training.  The  essential  point  to  notice,  however, 
is  that  the  number  of  such  individuals  is  small.  On  the  basis  of 
such  measurements  as  have  been  made  we  can  say  with  some 
definiteness  that  the  number  of  children  who  are  "natural-born" 
spellers  is  approximately  ten  per  cent  of  the  total.  For  the  other 
90  per  cent  the  acquisition  of  adequate  skill  involves  either  a  pro- 
longed period  of  purposeful  activity  or  some  form  of  direct  drill. 


TEACHING  THROUGH  THE  USE  OF  PROJECTS          147 

For  instance,  in  Detroit,  for  one  experiment,  we  found  by 
testing,  five  common  words  which  no  child  in  a  certain  second 
grade  class  could  spell  correctly.  They  were  picture,  circus, 
pencil,  knife,  and  umbrella.  The  class  then  used  these  words  in 
a  spelling  game  each  day.  There  was  no  study  except  that 
which  came  from  the  use  of  the  words  in  the  game.  The  children 
probably  were  not  interested  in  the  spelling,  but  they  did  enjoy 
the  fun.  As  a  result  of  this  incidental  drill  the  first  day  two  chil- 
dren learned  to  spell  the  words  correctly.  At  the  end  of  5  days 
12  children  could  spell  the  words,  in  10  days  the  number  had 
risen  to  17,  while  at  the  end  of  16  days,  when  the  experiment  was 
discontinued,  there  were  still  13  children  out  of  38  in  the  class  so 
limited  in  ability  to  learn  spelling  that  opportunities  adequate 
for  most  of  the  children  were  not  sufficient  for  them. 

Similar  data  could  be  shown  in  any  amount,  but  there  is  no 
need.  There  is  no  individual  in  this  room  who  cannot  supply  from 
his  own  personal  experiences  instances  of  differences  in  capacity 
to  learn.  For  all  but  thfe  specially  gifted,  therefore,  artificially 
created  conditions  which  enable  ordinary  individuals  who  really 
wish  to  learn  to  repeat  over  and  over  again  special  phases  of 
some  purposeful  activity  are  necessary  and  of  vital  benefit. 

For  the  present  discussion  the  important  fact  is  that  drill  is 
not  only  a  natural  way  of  learning,  but  an  economical  way  for  a  v 
very  large  percentage  of  our  school  population.  The  essential  ele- 
ment, however,  is  not  primarily  the  number  or  character  of  the 
repetitions,  but  the  wholeheartedness  of  the  desire  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  profit  by  the  practice.  It  cannot  be  too  much  em- 
phasized that  drill  may  thus  be  as  much  a  self-directed,  purpose- 
ful activity  as  any  other  occupation.  It  is  for  this  reason,  I  take 
it,  that  drill  finds  a  place  among  Professor  Kilpatrick's  four  types 
of  projects. 

May  I  say  something,  also,  about  the  social  aspects  of  drill?  ^ 
I  have  heard  ardent  advocates  of  the  project  method  disparage 
class  drills  as  non-social.  I  can  find  nothing  in  the  nature  of 
drill  to  prevent  the  motive  from  being  the  highest  that  can  move 
man  to  action,  namely,  the  desire  to  be  of  service  to  his  fellow 
men.  If  a  child  drills  himself  in  addition  because  he  has  come  to 
see  that  skill  in  addition  is  essential  to  the  achievement  of  a 
social  purpose,  what  element  of  harm,  or  evil,  is  there  in  the  situa- 


148  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

tion?  None,  I  think;  and  if  it  so  happens  that  of  necessity  forty 
children  agree  to  carry  on  their  individual  practice  in  the  same 
room  at  the  same  time  and  under  the  same  conditions,  the  ap- 
parent outward  uniformity  is  no  handicap,  provided  each  child 
really  drills  himself  on  his  own  material,  at  his  own  rate,  and  in 
his  own  way.  In  fact,  the  reverse  is  true.  The  social  setting 
operates  to  raise  to  a  higher  level  each  individual's  appreciation 
of  the  meaning  of  his  drill  project.  The  success  achieved  by 
others  will  be  just  as  truly  an  inspiration  to  effort  as  it  is  in  any 
other  social  situation,  and  the  individual's  personal  success  may 
be  recognized  as  a  contribution  to  social  progress  of  the  group. 

The  last  element  I  shall  present  for  your  consideration  is  the 
possibility  of  there  being  critical  steps  or  phases  in  the  develop-^ 
ment  of  skill.  '  In  such  a  case  careful  organization  of  procedure, 
and  scientific  determination  of  the  best  sequence  may  mean  de- 
creased teaching  effort,  decreased  learning  time,  and  increased 
final  efficiency.  In  industry  this  step  has  already  been  taken. 
For  instance,  I  heard  an  efficiency  engineer  describe  the  process- 
of  building  up  a  proper  method  of  drill  in  typewriting.  Moving 
pictures  were  taken  of  ten  of  the  most  expert  operators  that  could  • 
be  found.  These  pictures  constituted  an  analysis  of  the  activity 
into  minute  elements.  For  example,  my  friend  had  nine  separate 
pictures  showing  every  movement  of  one  finger  from  the  time 
it  started  to  press  one  key  until  it  was  ready  to  strike  the  next. 
These  films  were  cut  apart  and  each  section  compared,  motion 
by  motion.  Selection  was  made  of  the  best,  and,  motion  by  mo- 
tion, a  perfect  expert  operator  was  built  up  by  a  combination  of  the 
best  elements  in  each  of  the  ten  expert  performances.  When  the 
composite  film  was  completed  it  was  used  to  train  new  operators. 

That  is,  in  teaching  typewriting  it  has  been  found  wasteful  to 
learn  by  doing.  The  beginner  is  shown  objectively  from  the 
very  first  how  to  make  each  motion  correctly.  The  result  seemed 
to  me  incredible.  I  hesitate  to  quote  because  I  dare  not  trust  my 
memory,  and  the  figures,  so  far  as  I  know,  are  not  in  print;  but 
I  know  that  expert  operators  were  made  in  a  very  small  number  of 
lessons.  This  is  but  one  of  many  similar  cases  in  the  commercial 
field.  Are  there  no  lessons  for  us  in  this?  There  are  best  habits 
of  adding,  and  a  best  sequence  of  effort  in  developing  these  habits. 
The  same  is  true  of  every  other  educational  skill.  Formally  or- 


TEACHING  THROUGH  THE  USE  OF  PROJECTS          149 

ganized  drill  material  embodying  the  results  of  extensive  investi- 
gations makes  it  possible  for  the  person  who  desires  to  learn  to 
achieve  his  goal  quickly,  efficiently,  and  with  the  least  possible 
effort.  For  the  organization  of  the  drill  material  places  at  his 
disposal  the  experience  of  others  more  gifted  and  more  expert 
than  himself. 

I  have  said  enough  to  show  that  the  problem  of  providing  for 
the  development  of  fundamental  skills  is  no  simple  one  to  be- 
left  to  take  care  of  itself,  or  to  be  dismissed  with  a  magic  formula- 
"learn  to  jo  by  doing."    We  need  to  pick  and  choose  among  con- 
flicting elements,  only  a  few  of  which  I  have  presented  here/ 
By  way  of  conclusion  let  me  ask  you  to  imagine  a  school  in  which 
the  central  core  of  the  work  was  a  series  of  projects  drawn  fro 
the  social  life  of  the  day,  but  so  based  upon  the  elemental 
pulses  and  desires  of  child  life  that  they  elicited  from  the  childre 
whole-hearted,  self-directed  effort.     Suppose,  further,  that  each 
of  the  projects  was  so  objectively  defined  that  each  child  could 
judge  of  his  own  success  or  failure.    Finally,  suppose  that  in  event 
of  failure,  or  of  poor  work,  there  was  available  drill  material, 
perfectly  and  scientifically  organized,  so  that  it  was  possible  for 
each  child  to  give  himself  just  the  amount  and  type  of  drill  whicrr 
was  required  for  each  need  as  it  arose.    Would  there  not  be  pro-   \ 
vision  for  adequate  drill,  and  would  not  final  abilities  be  adequate    ,' 
for  efficient  social  living? 

It  is  toward  such  an  ideal  that  we  are  working  in  Detroit. 
We  have  not  gone  far,  it  is  true.  We  have  the  machinery  for  the 
drill  work  in  arithmetic  completed,  and  that  for  writing  nearing 
completion.  The  work  on  the  spelling  drills  is  under  way.  These 
are  the  easier  phases  of  our  problem.  We  are  just  beginning  on 
the  selection  and  organization  of  suitable  projects.  The  most 
important  problem  of  all  has  scarcely  been  touched,  namely, 
that  of  so  adjusting  the  viewpoint  of  more  than  3,000  teachers 
that  our  educational  machinery  may  be  administered  democrati- 
cally and  with  due  respect  for  the  inherent  dignity  of  the  per- 
sonality of  the  individual.  True  project  teaching  takes  time; 
we  propose  to  get  that  time  by  eliminating  the  waste  in  useless 
drill.  We  shall  have  succeeded  only  when  the  attainment  of 
standard  degrees  of  the  fundamental  skills  conies  as  a  result  of 
self-directed  drill  projects. 


7 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD 

By  JOHN  P.  HERRING 
Graduate  Student,  Teachers  College 

The  purpose  of  this  bibliography  is  to  spread  such  knowledge 
of  the  project  method  as  now  exists.  To  this  end  titles  which 
present  this  knowledge  have  been  sought,  and  others,  often 
despite  claims  to  relevancy,  have  been  avoided.  Time  has 
unfortunately  prevented  collection  in  some  fields  where  contribu- 
tions have  been  made.  A  discriminating  annotated  biliography 
of  the  project  method  in  agriculture  is  needed  but  is  not  in- 
cluded. Titles  in  other  special  fields  of  education  have  not 
been  exhaustively  obtained.  No  work,  however,  of  general 
interest  to  the  philosophy,  the  psychology,  or  the  practice  of  the 
method  has  been  intentionally  omitted. 

Indebtedness  is  acknowledged  to  Professor  William  Heard 
Kilpatrick  of  Teachers  College,  for  suggesting  that  the  bibliog- 
raphy be  made,  for  beginning  the  collection  of  titles,  and  for 
criticising  the  annotations.  The  writer  holds  none  but  himself 
responsible. 

ADAMS,    M.    G.     "Home    Project   Work   in   Vocational    Home 
Economics  in  Secondary  Schools."     Journal  of  Home  Econom- 
ics, 10:358-62  (1918). 
Suggests  projects  in  food,  textiles,  and  clothing,  giving  general  directions, 

steps  of  preparation  for  the  teacher,  projects  for  different  years  of  the  course, 

and  pupil  outlines. 

ALLEN,  I.  M.     Notes  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Illinois  State 

Teachers  Association,  pp.   126-33  (1917)- 

Reviews  C.  H.  Johnson's  philosophy  of  education  as  to  discipline,  method, 
socialized  recitation,  and  supervised  study.  The  absolutist's  and  the  experi- 
mentalist's positions  are  stated  antithetically  for  each  of  the  topics  named.  • 

<  BATCHELDER,  M.  I.     "Materials  and  Activities  in  the  Second 
Grade."     Teachers  College  Record,  20:205-10  (1919). 
A  typical  day's  program  is  described  and  an  account  given  of  activities  in  an 

experimental  room  largely  dominated  by  the  spirit  and  method  of  the  project. 

ISO 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD          151 

•  BOGARDUS,    E.    S.     Essentials    of    Social    Psychology.     I59pp. 

Univ.  of  Southern  California  (1918). 

Written  to  develop  the  "problem  getting"  method  of  education  in  the  student 
of  psychology.  At  the  close  of  each  chapter  is  a  list  of  problems. 

BONSER,    F,    G.     "Industrial   Arts."     In    Teaching   Elementary 
School  Subjects  (Rapeer,  L.  W.,  ed.).     pp.  281-98.     Scribner 

(1917). 

The  need,  values,  organization,  and  content  of  a  curriculum  in  industrial 
arts,  with  provision  for  projects.  Will  repay  analysis  by  any  one  purposing  to 
make  curricula. 

BRANOM,  M.  E.     Project  Method  in  Education.    282pp.     R.  G. 
Badger  (1919). 

Should  be  generally  available.  A  full  and  systematic  presentation.  Excel- 
lent criticism  of  definitions  thus  far  proposed ;  relation  of  method  to  instincts 
and  to  adult  activities;  illustrative  material.  The  first  book  in  its  field. 

•  •  — .     "Project-Problem  Method  in  History."     Historical 

Outlook,  11:107-10  (1920). 

Information  projects,  enjoyment  projects,  and  problem  projects.  Effect- 
to-cause  and  cause-to-effect  problems  in  history.  Illustrations.  The  initiation 
of  projects.  Steps  in  the  project  process. 

v  _   .     "Project- Problem  Method  in  the  Teaching  of  Geog- 
raphy."    Journal  of  Geography,  16:333-38  (1918). 

A  general  discussion  of  the  nature  of  solutions,  the  advantages,  the  difficul- 
ties, and  the  dangers  of  the  method,  with  a  number  of  illustrations. 

•  -  — .     "Value  of  the  Problem-Project  Method  in  Elemen- 

tary Education."  Elementary  School  Journal,  18:618-22  (1918). 

Treats  of  four  steps  and  nine  advantages.  Says  the  teacher  can  no  longer 
afford  not  to  be  master  of  the  method.  The  illustrative  material  is  excellent. 

BURKS,  J.  D.     "Environment  of  the  School."     Teachers  College 
Record,  3:273-91  (1902). 

The  environment  is  that  of  the  Speyer  School.  This  article  admirably 
illustrates  one  kind  of  knowledge  needed  in  education  through  projects. 

1  •  BURNS,    H.    F.      "Group   Socialized    Recitation."      Education, 
39:176-81  (1918). 

Develops  somewhat  elaborately  a  plan  of  discussion  in  small  groups  as  prep- 
aration for  recitation.  The  plan  is  reported  as  having  been  warmly  approved  by 
certain  high  school  pupils,  who  say  that  it  is  broadening,  it  is  interesting,  it 
develops  coherent  expression  and  codperation,  and  that  it  provokes  thought. 


152  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

CARMAN,  K.  V.  "Basing  Work  in  Industrial  Arts  on  the  Con- 
struction of  a  New  Building."  Teachers  College  Record, 
17:247-62  (1916). 

"In  basing  the  larger  portion  of  a  year's  work  in  industrial  arts  upon  the 
erection  of  a  new  high  school  building,  he  has  given  a  practical  demonstration 
in  the  enrichment  of  school  work  by  deriving  its  motives  from  community 
activities.  .  .  Cooperation  of  the  teachers  came  as  the  most  natural  thing. 
Mr.  Carman's  successful  experiment  should  stimulate  other  teachers 
to  similar  effort."  F.  G.  Bonser. 

CHARTERS,  J.  A.     "Problem  Method  of  Teaching  Ideals."    Eng- 
lish Journal,  8:461-73  (1919). 
It  is  recommended  that  children  be  given  problems  the  solution  of  which  will 

develop  appreciation  for  the  ideals  to  be  taught. 

CHARTERS,  W.  W.  Methods  of  Teaching  Developed  from  a  Func- 
tional Standpoint.  255pp.  Rowe,  Peterson  (1909). 

A  suggestive  reading  on  the  multiplicity  and  relativity  of  aims,  the  relations 
of  method  and  content,  the  intrinsic  function  of  subject-matter,  structure  and 
subject-matter,  motives,  control  of  values,  methods,  order,  concreteness,  and 
drill. 
.     "Projects  in  Home  Economics  Teaching."     Journal 

of  Home  Economics,  10:114-19  (1918). 

Definition,  relation  to  curriculum,  advantages  and  limitations  of  projects. 

CHICAGO  NORMAL  COLLEGE  STUDENTS.  "Suggestive  Outline  for 
Project- Problem  Teaching."  Chicago  Schools  Journal,  2:17-20 
(1919). 

Questions  to  stimulate  interest  and  bring  out  the  suggestion  by  the  group 
that  a  club  be  formed  to  study  Chicago's  achievements  and  needs.  The  plans 
made  by  the  group  are  presented  as  well  as  plans  made  for  the  organization  of  a 
dramatic  club  among  the  pupils. 

CLARK,   A.    B.     "Experiment  in   Problem  Teaching."     English 

Journal,  6:535-38  (1917). 

Describes  the  writing  and  production  of  a  play  in  one  year  by  seventeen 
high  school  pupils.  Preliminary  writing  of  plots  and  plays;  earning  money  to 
see  Forbes- Robertson;  interviewing  the  great  actor;  conversations  with 
miners  and  mining  experts;  community  suggestions;  type- writing,  producing, 
and  printing.  A  long,  complex,  but  well  sustained  problem-project. 

CLARK,  L.  A.     "Good  Way  to  Teach  History."     School  Review, 

17:255-66  (1909). 

A  record  of  events  in  a  high  school  with  evidence  of  keen  interest  and  suc- 
cessful outcomes.  "No  teacher  is  equal  to  the  dynamic  force  of  the  class  before 
her." 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD          153 

COLVIN,  S.  S.     Learning  Process.     336pp.     Macmillan  (1915). 

Chapters  XX-XXII  analyze  logical  thinking,  judgment,  and  reasoning  and 
discuss  instruction  in  the  form  of  the  problem. 

COOK,  E.  C.     "Experiment  in  the  Teaching  of  College  English." 

Teachers  College  Record,  19:131-46  (1918). 

Designed  to  ascertain  whether  freedom  in  class  work  develops  more  genuine 
literary  taste  and  judgment  than  regularly  imposed  lessons.  The  quality  and 
quantity  of  result  are  tentatively  regarded  as  favoring  freedom. 

COOKE,    F.   J.   and    others.      Francis    W.   Parker   School    Year 
Book.     (Chicago.) 

Vol.  i:     Social  Motive  in  School  Work.     I39pp.     (1912.) 
Vol.  2  :     Morning  Exercise  as  a  Socializing  Influence.  I98pp. 


Vol.  3:     Expression  as  a  Means  of  Training  Motive.     i88pp. 

(1914.) 
Vol.  4:     Education   Through   Concrete  Experience. 


Vol.  5:     The  Course  in  Science.     i68pp.     (1918.) 
There  is  as  yet,  perhaps,  no  fuller  single  source  of  clear  and  sound  illustra- 
tions of  education  that  has  been  accomplished  through  projects. 

COOK,  H.  C.     Play  Way:     An  Essay  in  Educational  Method. 

367pp.     Stokes  (1917). 

Unique,  undoubtedly  possessing  style,  full  of  epigrammatic  wit  and  pedagog- 
ical wisdom.  Discusses  principles  and  methods  of  education;  as  play,  self- 
government,  "littleman  lectures,"  a  play  town,  acting,  and  play  making.  Easily 
skimmed  for  its  kernels,  yet  sustained  in  quality.  "The  basis  of  educational 
method  is  regard  for  the  interests  of  children,"  suggests  a  dominant  attitude. 

'»  COURTIS,  S.  A.  "Teaching  Through  the  Use  of  Projects  or  Pur- 
poseful Acts.  How  Provide  for  the  Development  of  Funda- 
mental Skills?"  Teachers  College  Record,  21:  No.  2  (March, 
1920). 

Faces  squarely  certain  considerations  very  often  urged  as  limitations  of  the 
project  method.  Searching  positive  and  negative  criticism  both  of  project 
method  and  of  drill  methods;  of  existing  practice  and  theory.  The  broad  out- 
line of  a  constructive  program  synthesizing  project  and  drill. 

CRAIGO,  R.  T.     "New  Idea  in  Trade  Training."     Artisan,  1:6-7 

(1919). 

At  Dunwoody  Institute  interest  in  learning  is  said  to  be  created  by  a  little 
participation  in  actual  industry  at  the  outset.  Students  about  to  study 
framing,  rafter-cutting,  and  flooring,  first  build  a  small  building. 


154  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

DAVIDSON,  P.  E.     "Educational  Reform  and  the  Manly  Virtues." 

School  and  Society,  8:361-67  (1918). 

Discusses  Flexner's  Modern  School,  raising  questions  regarding  modern 
education,  particularly  regarding  the  relation  of  interest  and  effort  to  prepara- 
tion for  life.  The  author  feels  the  need  of  a  legitimate  compromise  between 
interest  and  effort. 

DEARBORN,  G.  V.  N.  How  to  Learn  Easily.  221  pp.   Little  (1916). 

One  of  the  how-to-study  books  from  which  one  may  take  helpful  suggestions 
for  his  own  method  in  its  general  aspects. 

DETRAZ,  M.  J.     "Materials  and  Activities  in  the  Third  Grade." 

Teachers  College  Record,  20:210-18  (1919). 

Tells  of  the  social  difficulties  in  a  self-directed  group,  of  which  the  teacher  is 
an  influential  member,  and  of  their  solution  by  the  group.  The  narrative  is 
vivid,  dignified,  and  convincing.  The  curriculum  content  is  given. 

DEWEY,  E.     New  Schools  for  Old:   the  Regeneration  of  the  Porter 

School.     337pp.     Dutton  (1919). 

A  solution  of  difficulties  typical  of  rural  education  through  means  typically 
accessible  in  the  country.  The  things  done  in  the  school  were  done  with  an  eye 
to  the  education  of  the  community.  School  and  community  interest  were  made 
one. 

DEWEY,   E.   and   DEWEY,   J.     Schools  of  To-morrow.     31  6pp. 

Dutton  (1915). 

A  contemporary  source  of  current  thought  on  purposeful  activity  in  educa- 
tion, as  related  to  natural  development,  freedom,  individuality,  play,  education 
through  industry,  and  democratic  education.  Certain  "schools  of  to-morrow," 
now  famous,  are  here  described. 

DEWEY,  J.     "Activity."     In  MONROE:    Cyclopedia  of  Education, 


Philosophy,  psychology,  logic,  practice,  and  equipment  as  related  to  the 
concept  of  activity. 

-  .     Child   and    Curriculum.     4Opp.     Univ.    of    Chicago 
(1902). 

From  the  point  of  view  of  Dewey's  philosophy  of  education,  the  basis  and 
background  of  project  learning  are  presented  in  relation  to  the  learner  and  what 
is  learned.  Principles  for  the  guidance  of  teaching;  education  as  its  own  end; 
society  as  its  own  end;  interest  and  motive. 

-  .     Democracy  and  Education:    An  Introduction  to  the 
Philosophy  of  Education.     434pp.     Macmillan  (1916). 

The  general  philosophic  background  and  basis  of  the  problem-project 
method. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD          155 

DEWEY,  J.     How  We  Think.     224pp.     Heath  (1910). 

A  main  source  of  the  philosophy  and  psychology  of  education  through 
problems,  with  much  specific  advice  as  to  procedure  in  the  school. 

— .     Interest  and  Effort  in  Education.     loipp.     Houghton 

Mifflin  (1913). 

An  integral  portion  of  the  Dewey  philosophy  and  psychology  of  education 
that  is  the  basis  and  background  for  the  project  method.  Deals  with  ethical 
educational  problems  sure  to  arise  in  the  earlier  stages  of  experiment  with  the 
project  method.  Virtually  a  later  edition  of  the  author's  Interest  as  Related  to 
Will. 

— .     Interest  as  Related  to  Will.     Second  supplement  to  the 
Herbart  Yearbook.     4Opp.     Univ.  of  Chicago  (1895). 
A  philosophic  consideration  of  the  first  rank,  dealing  with  certain  illogical 
and  harmful  dualisms  frequently  held  as  true  and  of  certain  logical  and  benefi- 
cial monistic  aspects  of  the  problem  of  interest  as  related  to  will.    Propulsive, 
objective,  and  emotional  phases  of  interest,  work,  and  drudgery;    pleasure, 
desire,  ends,  ideals,  effort,  strain,  and  discipline  are  treated. 

— .     "Method."     In  MONROE:    Cyclopedia  of  Education, 

IV 1202-5  (1913)- 

An  exposition  of  a  part  of  the  philosophy  fundamental  to  the  project  method. 
Method  as  related  to  institutional  agencies  and  to  subject  matter;  educational 
method;  logical  method;  general  method;  method  as  an  aspect  of  content; 
purpose  and  interest;  relation  of  scientific  method  to  educational  method. 

.     "Method    in    Science    Teaching."    General    Science 

Quarterly,  1:3-9;  N.E.A.  Proceedings ,  54729-34  (1916). 
Stages  of  the  educational  development  of  science.     The  dynamic  point  of 

view  contrasted  with  the  merely  informational.    The  extremes  of  memorizing 

for  task-masters  and  of  aimless  freedom  are  to  be  avoided. 


— .     Moral  Principles  in  Education.     6opp.     Houghton 
Mifflin  (1909). 

Morality  as  an  aspect  of  method  and  of  content;  moral  purpose  of  the 
school;  moral  training  given  by  the  school  community;  social  nature  of  the 
course  of  study;  psychological  aspect  of  moral  education.  The  philosophic 
source,  as  opposed  to  the  dualism  of  much  that  is  common  in  practice. 

— .     "Nature  of  Method."     Chap.  13  in  Democracy  and 

Education,  pp.  193-211.     Macmillan  (1916). 

Treats  of  method  as  an  aspect  of  content,  as  general  and  individual;  of  self- 
consciousness,  open-mindedness,  single-mindedness,  and  responsibility  as 
traits  of  individual  method.  A  piece  of  philosophy  fundamental  to  the 
problem-project  method. 


156  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

DEWEY,  J.     "Problem."     In  MONROE:    Cyclopedia  of  Education, 

5:47  (1913). 

A  brief  statement  of  the  philosophy  of  the  problem  as  fundamental  in  educa- 
tional method. 

— .  "Prospective  Elementary  Education."  In  Teaching 
Elementary  School  Subjects  (Rapeer,  L.  W.,  ed.).  pp.  552-69. 
Scribner  (1917). 

Such  topics  as  pragmatism  and  intelligence,  former  theories,  the  new  theory 
of  mind,  thinking,  method,  subject  matter,  occupation,  and  values  are  pre- 
sented from  the  point  of  view  of  education  through  purposeful  activity. 

.     "Reasoning  in  Early  Childhood."     Teachers  College 

Record,  15:9-15  (1914). 

The  improvement  of  reasoning  power  is  perhaps  impossible  through  teach- 
ing, but  the  conditions  which  permit  its  development  may  be  provided.  Three 
constant  conditions  of  thinking:  end,  means,  discovery.  A  writing  of  impor- 
tance as  showing  through  what  means  reasoning  capacity  may  grow  and 
through  what  means  it  will  not. 

— .     School    and    Society.     i64pp.     Univ.     of     Chicago 

(I9I5)- 

Treats  of  the  relation  of  active  occupation  to  the  development  of  spirit  in 
the  school,  and  of  certain  projects  as  recapitulations  of  race  experiences.  A 
fundamental  discussion  of  the  psychology  of  occupation  for  common  ends. 

DOPP,    K.    E.     Place    of   Industries   in   Elementary   Education. 

27Opp.     Univ.  of  Chicago  (1913). 

Suggestive  in  many  parts,  but  especially  in  Chap.  V,  which  treats  of  the 
problem  of  the  teacher  who  is  not  furnished  with  the  equipment  needed  for  in- 
dustrial projects. 

EARHART,  L.  B.     "Experiment  in  Teaching  Children  to  Study." 

Education,  30:236-44  (1909). 

Can  fourth  grade  pupils  be  taught  to  study  a  reading  lesson  independently? 
The  question  is  answered  affirmatively,  and  a  detailed  account  of  the  method 
of  investigation  is  presented.  Very  useful  on  the  problem  side  of  the  project 
method. 

— .     Systematic  Study  in  the  Elementary  Schools.     97  pp. 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  (1908). 

Treats  of  the  usual  lack  of  effective  study  by  children  and  of  its  possibility, 
of  the  recognition  of  problems,  collecting  data,  scientific  doubt,  verification, 
memorizing,  and  of  recognizing  individuality.  Illustrative  material  is  in- 
cluded. An  excellent  analysis  of  the  educational  situation  as  to  children's 
study,  and  of  valid  methods. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF    THE    PROJECT   METHOD  157 

EARHART,  L.  B.    Teaching  Children  to  Study.    iSipp.    Hough  ton 

Mifflin  (1909). 

Treats  of  the  inductive  and  deductive  methods  of  study,  of  the  text-book  in 
study,  of  children's  abilities  for  study,  and  of  present  attainments.  Very 
useful  on  the  problem  side  of  the  problem-project  method. 

— .    Types  of  Teaching.    277pp.   Hough  ton  Mifflin  (1915). 

See  especially  Chap.  XIV  on  "Training  children  to  study."    Treats  of  finding 

the  aim,  judging  of  hypotheses,  collecting  and  evaluating  data,  organizing 

data,  suspending  judgment,  testing  conclusions,  and  thoughtful  memorizing. 

Valuable  for  the  problem  aspect  of  the  problem-project  method. 

FELL,    E.    E.     "Socializing   the   School   and   the   Community." 
Moderator-Topics,  38:453-55,  469-71   (1918). 
Describes  the  organization,  subsequent  management,  and  benefits  of  clubs 
for  parents  and  teachers. 

FINLAY- JOHNSON,  H.      Dramatic  Method  of  Teaching.      199pp. 

Jos.  Nisbet  (London,  1917). 

History,  geography,  arithmetic,  composition,  nature  study,  and  manual 
arts  taught  through  plays  written  or  adapted  to  purpose  by  the  pupils. 

FOULKES,  T.  R.  and  DIAMOND,  T.     "Argument  for  Larger  Pro- 
jects Suggestive  of  Community  Activity."     Manual  Training 
Magazine,  21:5-8  (1919). 
Study  of  projects,  made  and  used  by  1532  pupils  in  Wisconsin,  showed  that 

many  articles  made  are  not  used.     Such  projects  as  the  summer  cottage,  the 

garage,  the  highboy  are  suggested. 

FRITZ,  J.  A.     "How  a  Project  was  Worked  out  in  a  iB  Room." 

Kindergarten  and  First  Grade,  4:20  (1919). 

A  good  illustration  of  the  rise  and  leads  of  a  simple  project. 

GASTON,  C.  R.     "Social  Procedure  in  the  English  Class-room." 

English  Journal,  8:2-7  (I9I9)- 

Reports  work  done  by  a  socially  active  group,  the  advantages  for  teacher 
and  pupil,  and  a  number  of  questions  to  be  used  as  criteria  for  this  type  of  work. 

GATES,  A.  I.    "Psychological  vs.  the  Chronological  Order  in  the 
Teaching  of  History."    (To  appear  in  Historical  Outlook.) 
An  important  contribution  to  the  psychology  of  the  project  method  in 
history,  from  the  point  of  view  of  Thorndike's  psychology  of  bonds  between 
situations  and  responses.    Aims.     Desirable  habits  in  intellect,  emotion,  and 
attitudes.    Relevant  situations  and  responses,  optimum  order  of  development, 
recapitulation,  chronological  order,  reverse  chronological  order,  logical  order, 
and  the  order  of  utility. 


158  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

HARRINGTON,  H.  F.   "Teaching  Journalism  in  a  Natural  Setting." 
Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  5:197-206  (1919). 

Describes  the  organization  of  college  into  a  working  force  in  journalism.  The 
goal  is  reached  in  publication  in  the  college  newspaper.  Training  in  observa- 
tion and  truth-telling  in  journalism  is  emphasized. 

HATCH,  R.  W.    "Adaptation  of  the  Project  as  a  Basis  for  Teaching 
History."    (To  appear  in  Historical  Outlook.} 

One  of  the  most  illuminating  of  the  contributions  to  technique  and  practice. 
Detailed  account  of  two  or  three  projects.  The  reader  is  struck  with  the 
feasibility  of  a  method  admittedly  difficult  to  employ.  Natural  rise  of  new 
projects.  Correlation  of  geography,  history  and  civics.  Arguments  for  and 
against  the  project  method  in  history.  Results. 


.    "Adaptation  of  the  Project  at>  a  Basis  for  Teaching 

History."    (To  appear  in  Teachers  College  Record.) 

The  method  of  setting  the  project,  the  materials  used,  pupil  charts  and  sum- 
maries, as  well  as  typical  answers  to  test  questions  will  appear  in  some  detail. 

HAUSMAN,  L.  A.  "Making  Relief  Maps."  Journal  of  Geography, 
16:97-100  (1917). 

A  method  by  which  pupils  who  are  developing  projects  in  geography  or 
history  may  build  contour  or  relief  maps. 

HENRY,  T.  S.  "Problem  Method  in  Teaching."  School  and 
Home  Education,  36:162-68  (1917). 

Education  as  problem  solving;  characteristics  of  real  problems;  developing 
the  problematic  situation ;  scope  and  limitations;  dangers.  A  comprehensive 
discussion  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Dewey  philosophy. 

HERRING,  J.  P.  "Measurements  of  Some  Abilities  in  Scientific 
Thinking."  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  9:535-58 
(1918)  and  10:417-32  (1919). 

Intimate  relation  of  project  method  and  scientific  method;  definition  of 
certain  phases  of  scientific  method ;  a  test  composed  of  33  problems  designed 
as  measures  of  defined  aspects  of  scientific  ability;  aim,  history,  and  limitations 
of  the  test.  The  text  of  the  test  is  presented,  and  a  scale  is  developed. 

HEYLE,  E.  M.  "School  Lunch  as  a  Project  in  Teaching  Cookery 
in  the  Elementary  Schools."  Journal  of  Home  Economics, 
9:205-10  (1917). 

Describes  and  evaluates  a  method  in  which  the  preparation  of  the  school 
lunch  is  at  once  educative  and  efficient. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   THE    PROJECT   METHOD  159 

HINCHMAN,  W.  S.    "Reading  Clubs  Instead  of  Literature  Classes." 

School  and  Society,  4:417  (1916). 

Each  boy  reports  upon  a  book  he  has  read  from  time  to  time,  the  report 
being  followed  by  class  discussion.  The  fact  that  the  teacher  is  never  quite 
prepared  is  one  of  the  educative  features  of  the  plan.  Boys  are  found  to  read 
about  two  and  one-half  times  as  much  under  this  scheme  as  before  its  use. 

•   Hosic,  J.  F.    "Outline  of  the  Problem- Project  Method."    English 
Journal,  7:597-602  (1918). 

Treats  of  the  definition,  name,  nature,  value,  procedure,  pit-falls,  and  dif- 
ficulties of  the  problem-project  method.  Project  is  defined  as  a  single  complete 
unit  of  purposeful  experience.  A  very  compact  and  usefully  suggestive  series 
of  theses. 

HOWE,  C.  M.     "What  Eighty  Teachers  Think  as  to  the  Aim 
and   Subject   Matter   of   General   Science."     General  Science 
Quarterly,  2:445-58  (1918). 
An  analysis  of  responses  to  a  questionaire. 

%  JACKSON,  L.  L.     "Project — Sinning  and  Sinned  Against."     In- 
dustrial Arts  Magazine,  7:138-39  (1918). 

An  application  of  certain  criteria  of  project  education  to  a  typical  indus- 
trial arts  project. 

JOHNSON,   A.     "Written    Composition    in    the    Fourth    Grade." 

Central  Normal  Bulletin,  15:7-8  (1919). 

Through  group  criticism  and  incidental  teaching  of  minimum  essentials  in 
composition,  high  standards  in  paragraphing  are  attained. 

JONES,  W.  H.  S.     How  We  Learn.     64pp.     Putnam  (1916). 

The  psychology  and  practice  of  scientific  method  as  employed  by  boys. 
Induction,  deduction,  examples  of  scientific  discoveries,  the  method  of  dis- 
covery, analogy,  fallacies,  learning,  and  authority.  The  illustrative  material 
is  well  developed. 

KEATINGE,  M.  W.     Studies  in  the  Teaching  of  History.     232pp. 

Macmillan  (London,  1913). 

A  most  suggestive  work  on  the  use  of  problems  in  teaching  history.  A 
masterly  discussion  of  the  difficulties  inherent  in  historical  problems.  Many 
illustrations  of  the  quality  of  criticism  of  which  students  are  capable. 

KERR,  W.  H.     "Problem  Method  and  Its  Library  Correlation. 
A  Librarian's  Reaction."    Library  Journal,  42:686-87  (1917). 

The  writer  approves  the  problem  method  of  study  and  plans  generously  to 
adapt  library  methods  to  the  needs  of  children  who  use  the  method. 


160  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

KILPATRICK,  W.  H.  "Education  of  Adolescents  for  Democracy: 
A  General  View  and  Evaluation  of  Present  Methods."  Relig- 
ious Education,  14:123-35  (1919). 

A  contribution  of  the  very  first  importance  as  proposing  that  we  agree  upon 
criteria  and  proceed  to  evaluate  the  organizations  in  which  our  adolescents 
are  educated.  Phases  of  educational  psychology  are  related;  criteria  are 
proposed;  a  long  list  of  institutions  such  as  the  Boy  Scouts,  high  schools, 
technical  schools,  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and  school  fraternities  are  evaluated  and 
ranked. 

— .  "Problem-Project  Attack  in  Organization,  Subject- 
matter,  and  Teaching."  N.E.A.  Proceedings,  56:528-31 
(1918);  School,  29:396-97  (1918). 

Since  the  unit  of  worthy  living  is  the  project,  the  project  should  be  the  unit 
of  school  procedure;  it  utilizes  the  laws  of  learning;  it  leads  to  moral  living. 
Four  types  of  project  are  distinguished. 

— .  "Project  Method.  The  Use  of  the  Purposeful  Act 
in  the  Educative  Process."  Teachers  College  Bulletin,  loth 
Series,  No.  3  (1918). 

A  philosophic  and  psychologic  base  of  the  problem-project  movement.  A 
contribution  presenting  the  psychology  of  the  project,  a  concept  which  serves 
to  unify  three  factors  of  education:  activity,  the  laws  of  learning,  and  con- 
duct. Effective  purpose  is  the  essence  of  project  method.  The  purposeful  act 
is  the  typical  unit  of  worthy  life  and  should  be  that  of  school  procedure.  Four 
types  of  project  are  distinguished. 


.     "Project  Teaching."     General  Science  Quarterly,  1 :6;- 

72  (1917). 

A  compilation  from  notes  by  several  persons  who  heard  the  author  speak. 

.     "Theories    Underlying    the    Experiment."     Teachers 

College  Record,  20:99-106  (1919). 

What  children  are  to  learn :  of  common  affairs,  of  social  ideals  and  skills, 
of  self-reliance,  and  of  school  arts ;  learning  to  do  by  doing ;  the  child's  method ; 
child  doing  under  teacher  guidance.  A  presentation  before  patrons  of  the 
Horace  Mann  School  of  the  theories  of  a  significant  experiment. 


and    others.      "Horace    Mann    Studies    in    Primary 

Education."     Teachers  College  Record,  20:97-125  (1919). 

Introducing  a  series  of  articles  of  first  importance  as  describing  the  planning 
and  executing  of  project  experimentation  of  the  thoroughgoing  kind  in  the 
Horace  Mann  School.  Theories,  specimen  activities,  materials,  and  stimuli. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD          161 

KITSON,  H.  D.     How  to  Use  Your  Mind.    2iypp.     Lippincott 

(1916). 

One  of  the  how-to-study  books  from  which  one  may  take  helpful  suggestions 
for  his  own  method  in  its  general  aspect. 

KRACKOWITZER,  A.   M.    Projects  in  Primary  Grades.    221  pp. 

Lippincott  (1919). 

A  presentation  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Dewey  philosophy;  play, 
construction,  social  ethics,  nature,  and  the  formal  subjects  are  all  treated  as 
"purposeful  activity."  Discussion  of  problem  and  project,  and  of  criteria. 
Rich  with  illustrations  of  projects  for  the  primary  grades.  A  type  of  book 
bound  to  appear  more  and  more  frequently. 

LASHER,  G.  S.  "English  and  the  Project  Method."  Journal  of 
the  Michigan  School  Masters1  Club,  53:61-67  (1918). 

Describes  the  writing  of  a  book  about  Chicago  by  a  Freshman  high  school 
class,  and  other  projects. 

LEONARD,  S.  A.     "Social  Recitation."     Chicago  Schools  Journal. 

i:No.  10,  2-9  (1919). 

The  project  method  is  not  soft  pedagogy.  The  teacher  must  strongly  influ- 
ence the  purposing  of  the  pupils.  A  sound  discussion  of  certain  points  of 
modern  method  which  are  frequently  called  into  question. 

LOTT,    D.    W.     "Twenty    Minute    Project."     General    Science 

Quarterly,  1:122-26  (1917). 

Contains  the  quoted  conversation  of  the  class  room,  illustrating  one  project 
which  left  the  pupils  with  drives  toward  other  projects. 

LULL,  H.  G.  "Observation  and  Score  Card.  Project-Problem 
Instruction."  (May  be  obtained  from  J.  C.  DeVoss,  Kansas 
State  Normal  School,  Emporia,  Kansas.) 

Six  excellent  cards  presenting  an  elaborate  analysis  of  project-problem 
abilities:  (i)  and  (2)  Pupil  activities  and  teacher  activities  in  the  recitation 
period;  (3)  and  (4)  Pupil  activities  and  teacher  activities  in  the  supervised 
study  period;  (5)  Drill  projects;  (6)  Appreciation  activities. 

— .  "Problem  of  Method  of  Instruction  and  Its  Prob- 
able Correlation  in  Library  Service  and  Administration." 
Library  Journal,  42:683-85  (1917);  N.E.A.  Proceedings,  55: 
562-66  (1917). 

Problem  instruction  requires  the  pupil  to  seek  information  from  a  variety  of 
sources,  among  which  the  library  is  important.  The  modification  of  the  library 


1 62  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

service  in  equipment  and  methods  is  suggested,  and  the  creation  of  a  new  type 
of  service,  that  of  the  teacher-librarian,  is  proposed.  The  author  makes  it 
appear  that  our  libraries  might  become  vitally  concerned  with  project  teaching. 

LULL,  H.  G.     "Project- Problem  Instruction."    School  and  Home 
Education,  38:79-82  (1918). 

Definition  of  the  term  project.  A  thorough  treatment,  covering  much  of 
the  ground  of  the  author's  "What  are  Projects  and  Problems?"  (q.  t>.),  and  in 
addition  presenting  a  very  comprehensive  and  detailed  score  card  analysis  of 
the  activities  involved.  This  analysis  does  much  to  suggest  the  technique  of 
the  method. 


.     "Relation    of    Project- Problem    Instruction    to   the 

Curriculum."    School  and  Home  Education,  38:114-15  (1919). 

The  boundaries  between  subjects.  Drill  subjects  and  use  subjects  (applied 
technique)  in  elementary  and  junior  high  schools.  Acquisition  of  the  technique 
of  subjects  of  the  curriculum. 


— .      "Schoolroom    Technic    in    Problem    Instruction    in 
Grammar  Grades."     School  and  Society,  5:496-99  (1917). 

Socialization,  motivation,  problem  instruction,  supervised  study,  changed 
relationship  of  recitation  to  study,  and  suggestions  as  to  what  to  avoid  are 
discussed  from  the  point  of  view  of  education  through  purposeful  activity. 


.     "Socializing  School  Procedure."    American  Journal 

of  Sociology,  24:681-91  (1919). 

The  free  play  ways  of  children  utilized  in  teaching.  Two  assignments  are 
presented,  one  that  hampers  the  free  purposeful  attack  of  pupils  and  one  that 
furthers  that  attack.  Stenographic  report  of  class  conversation.  Application 
of  the  project  way  to  discipline  and  planning. 


.     "University  How-to-Study  Class."    School  and  Soci- 
ety, 4:961  (1916). 

How  the  author  in  cooperation  with  instructors  in  the  engineering  depart- 
ment of  a  university  taught  engineering  students  how  to  study.  Suggests  a 
type  of  work  probably  much  needed  in  many  schools. 


— .     "What  are  Projects  and  Problems?"    Teaching,  Vol. 
I,  No.  57  (1919);   Chicago  Schools  Journal,  2:19-25  (1919). 

Treats  of  the  definition,  stimuli,  processes,  relations  to  the  study  period,  the 
recitation,  the  teacher,  facilities,  and  examples  of  projects.  Contains  an  ade- 
quate and  detailed  manual  of  practice.  Twenty  pages  are  devoted  to  the 
reproduction  of  children's  notes,  plans,  revisions,  outlines,  and  expositions  of 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   THE    PROJECT   METHOD  163 

projects  in  geography,  English,  arithmetic,  and  science.    An  attempt  to  define 
certain  details  of  procedure  implicit  in  Dewey's  philosophy  of  education. 

»  LULL,  H.  G.  and  others.  "Project  Method  of  Instruction."  Teach- 
ing, 5,  No.  i,  3-31  (1920). 

The  January  number  of  Teaching  is  devoted  to  the  project  method.  Func- 
tion, types,  descriptive  illustrations,  verbatim  reports,  means  of  measuring 
progress  in  project  education  in  widely  different  fields.  A  large  range  of  sug- 
gestion and  concrete  help  useful  to  those  experimenting  with  the  method. 

LUNT,  J.  R.     "Illuminating  Gas  Project."     General  Science  Quar- 
terly, 1:213-5  (1917). 
A  detailed  account  of  a  project. 

McCALL,  W.  A.   and  others.     "Experimental   Measurements." 
Teachers  College  Record,  20 :2 1 8-28  (1919). 

The  measurement  of  experimental  groups  using  the  project  method  and  of 
control  groups  not  using  it  justified  the  conclusion  that  the  project  method 
secured  the  conventional  "intelligences"  of  the  primary  grades  almost  as  well 
as  the  older  methods.  The  project  method,  being  new,  it  is  suggested,  may  or 
may  not  later  outstrip  the  more  formal  methods  in  the  intellectual  requirements 
of  minimum  essentials,  and  may  or  may  not  outstrip  them  in  certain,  as  yet 
unmeasurable,  qualities. 


.     "Measuring  the  Horace  Mann  Elementary  School." 

Teachers  College  Record,  19:472-84  (1918). 

Reports  measurements  in  an  experimental  school  where  the  project  method 
is  used  in  several  rooms. 

MclNTYRE,  MRS.  H.  I.     "Giving  Purpose  to  Students  of  High 
School  English."    English  Journal,  6:539-41  (1917). 

Describes  the  beginning  of  an  attempt  to  increase  the  interest  of  Freshman 
and  Junior  English  students  by  surveying  their  needs  and  organizing  the 
course  to  meet  the  needs  expressed. 

MCLAUGHLIN,  K.     "How  to  Study."    Elementary  School  Journal, 
15:22-24  (1915)- 
Three  common  difficulties  are  presented  and  remedies  proposed. 

•  McMuRRY,  C.  A.    Teaching  by  Projects.    A  Basis  for  Purposeful 
Study.    257pp.     Macmillan  (1920). 

Treats  of  the  growing  tendency  to  adopt  large  projects  and  of  the  simplifying 
and  enriching  of  study  through  large  projects.  Presents  in  detail  a  number  of 
such  projects.  Relations  of  projects  to  classroom  method. 


1 64  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

McMuRRY,  F.  M.     Elementary  School  Standards.     21 8pp.  World 

Book  Co.  (1914). 

Interesting,  searching,  qualitative  criticism  of  a  school  system  in  the  light 
of  four  standards,  which  are  standards  for  problem  teaching:  provision  for 
motive  on  the  part  of  pupils,  consideration  of  values  by  pupils,  attention  to 
organization  by  pupils,  and  initiative  by  pupils.  This  book  will  long  be 
vitally  pertinent. 

— .     How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study.     324pp. 
Hough  ton  Mifflin  (1909). 

Nature  of  study;  provision  for  specific  purposes;  supplementing  thought; 
organizing  ideas;  judging  soundness  and  worth;  memorizing;  using  ideas; 
tentative  attitudes;  individuality.  An  important  early  contribution  to  the 
project  method,  with  special  emphasis  on  the  problem. 

—  and  others.  "Symposium  on  Study  in  the  Elementary 
School."  Education,  30:242-44  (1909)  and  30:311-15  (1910). 
Opinions  of  a  score  of  educators  in  response  to  pertinent  questions. 

MEISTER,  M.     "Guiding  and  Aiding  the  Pupil  in  His  Project." 
General  Science  Quarterly,  3:209-15  (1919). 

Suggestions  are  made  as  to  certain  elements  of  the  technique  of  project 
method,  such  as  use  of  references,  card  indexes,  conferences,  questions,  lists  of 
experiments,  etc. 

.     "Method    of    the    Scientists."     School    Science    and 

Mathematics,  18:743  (1918). 

The  method  of  scientists  is  essentially  like  that  of  the  project.  An  analysis 
of  the  processes  of  scientific  investigation  and  discussion  of  the  methods  used 
by  many  scientists. 

.     "Science  Work  in  the  Speyer  School."     General  Sci- 
ence Quarterly,  2:429-45  (1918). 
Thoughtful,  detailed  outline  of  the  project  method  with  concrete  suggestion 

on  certain  methods  in  class  work  in  the  high  school. 

MERRIMAN,  E.  D.     "Technique  of  Supervised  Study."     School 
Review,  18:35-38  (1918). 
Very  helpful,  detailed,  concrete  outline  for  this  phase  of  problem  study. 

MILLER,  H.  L.    "University  of  Wisconsin  Plan  for  the  Preparation 
of  High  School  Teachers."    N.  S.  S.  E.  iSth  Yearbook,  I  7-165. 

A  vigorous,  suggestive  presentation  of  the  plan  of  preparation  through  par- 
ticipation, in  which  the  project  method  is  central,  and  from  which  one  may 
learn  much  of  the  actual  working  of  the  method  in  one  school  and  almost  sense 
how  it  feels  to  learn  to  teach  well.  The  earnest  daily  reports  of  the  college 
seniors  who  are  preparing  to  teach  are  illuminating. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   THE    PROJECT   METHOD  165 

MILLER,    I.    E.     Psychology   of   Thinking.     298pp.     Macmillan 

(1910). 

Useful  as  an  analysis  of  the  physiological  and  psychological  bases  of  think- 
ing. Includes  many  specific  suggestions  as  to  procedure  in  guiding  children 
in  their  thinking. 

MILLIS,  J.  F.  and  others.     "Report  of  Committee  of  Mathematics 
Section  of  the  Central  Association  of  Science  and  Mathematics 
Teachers  on  Real  Applied  Problems  in  Algebra  and  Geometry." 
School  Science  and  Mathematics,  9:788—98  (1909) . 
Analysis  of  problem  method.    Method  and  results  of  the  investigation  of  the 

committee.    Illustrative  problems.    Bibliography  of  sources  of  problems. 

MINOR,  R.     "Project  Teaching  in  Grade  Six."     Elementary  School 

Journal,  20:137-45  (1919). 

The  rise  of  problems;  lists  of  problems  and  of  pupil  activities;  titles  of 
compositions;  relationships  among  subjects  of  the  curriculum;  results;  how 
the  work  of  the  grade  as  a  whole  was  handled.  Concretely  helpful. 

— .     "Supervision     of     Project    Teaching."     Educational 
Administration  and  Supervision,  5:357-63  (1919). 
Several  definitions  are  presented;    the  value  of  the  method  is  considered; 
a  very  detailed  analysis  of  the  values  is  presented.    Selected  bibliography. 

MOORE,  A.  E.  "Use  of  Children's  Initiative  in  Beginning  Read- 
ing." Teachers  College  Record,  17:330-43  (1916).  . 
The  purpose  of  the  experiment  was  to  "see  what  could  be  accomplished  in 

beginning  reading  through  self-directed  individual  effort,"  and  to  select  those 

reactions  which  were  most  effective.     A  most  promising  first-grade  project, 

with  a  list  of  pictures,  apparatus  and  books  used. 

MOORE,  E.  C.     What  is  Education?     357pp.     Ginn  (1915). 

A  very  live  presentation  in  everyday  terms  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
Dewey  philosophy  and  the  Thorndike  psychology.  Presents  strikingly  the 
relativity  of  process,  concept,  etc.,  and  the  project  idea  of  education.  Espe- 
cially chapters  on  the  place  of  method  in  education  and  on  learning  by  problem 
getting. 

MOORE,  J.  C.     "Projects."     General  Science  Quarterly,  1:14-16. 
Proposes  for  teachers  of  science  a  card  catalogue  system  of  projects  in  out- 
line accompanied  by  references  to  literature.    One  illustration  is  given. 

— .     "Project  Science,   Progressive."     School  Science  and 
Mathematics,  16:686-90  (1916). 

"The  results  of  science  teaching  do  not  measure  up  to  reasonable  expec- 
tancy." Project  method  is  analyzed  and  discussed. 


1 66  TEACHERS    COLLEGE   RECORD 

MORRIS,  M.     "Third  Grade  Project."     Central  Normal  Bulletin, 
15:1  (1919). 

Valuable  as  suggesting  that  teachers  who  move  to  new  fields  may  put  their 
new  pupils  into  communication  with  their  former  ones.  Leaves  of  timber  trees, 
peanuts  on  the  stalk,  cotton,  etc.,  were  exchanged  and  utilized  as  drives  for 
letter-writing,  spelling,  and  geography. 

NEWBY,  M.  I.    "The  Socialized  Recitation."    The  Sierra  Educa- 
tional News,  15:70-72  (1919). 

A  school  magazine  published  by  pupils,  debating  clubs  for  oral  language, 
imaginary  ownership  of  real  estate,  and  oil  prospecting  are  used  to  socialize  the 
curriculum.  Suggestive  of  projects  possible  in  most  communities. 

OWEN,  W.  B.     "Problem  Method."     Chicago  Schools  Journal, 
1:3-4  (1918). 

Treats  of  the  problem  method  as  a  synthesis  of  the  philosophy  of  experience, 
the  logic  of  purpose,  the  psychology  of  the  act,  the  method  of  science,  and  the 
processes  of  industry.  Discloses  clearly  the  vitality  of  relationship  between 
the  method  and  certain  contemporaneous  phases  of  thought  and  life.  The 
psychology  of  purpose  is  dominant. 

PARKER,  E.  P.    "Partition  of  Africa,  a  Seventh  Grade  Geography 
Unit."     Elementary  School  Journal,  20:188-202  (1919). 

Nine  periods  of  sixty  minutes  each  sufficed  to  develop  this  project.  Each 
child  chose  his  own  part.  Vivid  narrative  of  how  problems  lead  to  solutions 
and  solutions  to  problems. 


-  .     "Sixth  Grade  Science  Projects."     Elementary  School 
Journal,  20:297-307  (1919). 

Describes  the  making  of  telegraph  instruments  and  magnetic  toys,  and  the 
wiring  of  a  toy  theatre  for  electric  lights. 

PARKER,  S.  C.     Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools.     529pp. 
Ginn  (1915)- 

Contains  much  that  is  pertinent  to  the  technique  of  supervised  problem 
study  and  to  the  difficulties  of  transition  from  other  methods  to  the  project 
method.  Well  organized. 

PAYNE,  E.  G.     "Experiment  in  Motivation."     Elementary  School 
Journal,  17727-33 


An  experiment  undertaken  with  boys.  The  plan  was  of  two  parts:  visits  to 
factories,  and  study  and  discussion  growing  out  of  the  visits.  Contains  a 
general  detailed  outline  for  the  study  of  any  industry. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD  167 

PEARSON,  K.     Grammar  of  Science.     548pp.     Macmillan  (Lon- 
don, 1900). 

A  work  of  the  first  rank  dealing  with  the  facts,  conditions,  concepts,  and 
conclusions  of  science,  and  with  the  relations  of  the  sciences.  Pertinent  be- 
cause of  the  intimate  relation  of  scientific  method  with  problem-project  method. 

QUICK,  H.     Brown  Mouse.     3iopp.     Bobbs  Merrill  (1915). 

Fascinating  fiction  of  a  farmer  lad  with  a  country  education,  who  was 
inveigled  to  teach  the  country  school  and  who  quasi-instinctively  based  his 
procedure  upon  an  informal  survey  of  community  needs.  A  book  that  makes 
its  own  educational  appeal  on  a  basis  of  common  sense  and  plain  humor. 
The  ways  of  the  novice  here  strikingly  suggest  project  method. 

RAPEER,    L.    W.,    ed.     Teaching    Elementary    School    Subjects. 

569pp.     Scribner  (1917). 

A  symposium  of  more  than  a  score  of  leaders  of  thought  and  practice  in 
education.  Each  author  treats  of  a  subject  of  the  curriculum.  In  numerous 
places  content  is  related  with  projects. 

REAVIS,  W.  C.     "The  Social  Motive  in  the  Teaching  of  Arith- 
metic."   Elementary  School  Journal,  18:264-67  (1917). 
Describes  a  plan  of  teaching  stocks  and  bonds  to  an  eighth  grade  class. 

A  mock  bank  was  organized,  in  which  each  member  of  the  class  became  a 

stockholder. 

ROBERTS,    A.    C.     "An    Experiment    in    Socialization."     School 

Review,  26:25-34  (1918). 

Details  an  experiment  in  the  adaptation  of  high  school  education  to  certain 
purposeful  community  demands. 

SANDWICK,  R.  L.     How  to  Study  and  What  to  Study.     i7Opp. 

Heath  (1915). 

A  how-to-study  book  that  repays  reading.  Discussion;  pithy  summary; 
positive  recommendation;  analysis  of  process,  aspects,  types,  and  factors  of 
study.  Good  for  junior  and  senior  high  school  students  and  for  adults  who  feel 
the  need  of  help  on  the  technique  of  their  study  habits. 

SCOTT,  C.  A.     Social  Education.     298pp.     Ginn  (1908). 

Describes  certain  atypical  schools,  such  as  the  George  Junior  Republic  and 
the  Dewey  School.  Discusses  self -organized  group  work. 

— .  "Social  Significance  of  Self-Organized  Group  Work." 
In  KING,  L:  Social  Aspects  of  Education,  pp.  377-93.  Mac- 
millan (1912). 

Presents  a  method  of  initiating  the  project  plan  in  a  school  room  to  which  it 
is  new,  and  describes  a  number  of  projects.  Socialization  is  seen  intimately 
related  with  project.  A  most  interesting,  vivid,  and  frank  narrative  concern- 
ing certain  difficulties  and  solutions  in  socialization. 


1 68  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

SEMPLE,  E.  C.  Influences  of  Geographic  Environment.  683pp. 
Henry  Holt  (1911). 

An  invaluable  source  of  problems  and  their  solutions,  for  the  teacher  who 
realizes  the  necessity  of  being,  upon  her  own  level,  a  student,  if  she  is  to  guide 
students. 

SHUTE,  M.  C.  "The  Practice  of  Democracy  in  the  Kindergarten." 
Kindergarten  and  First  Grade,  3:89-94  (1918). 

Usefully  suggestive  discussion  of  the  problems  of  democratic  education, 
e.  g.,  that  of  the  individual  and  society. 

SIMPSON,  J.  H.  Adventure  in  Education.  2oypp.  Sidgwick 
(London,  1917). 

An  interestingly  written  and  carefully  analytic  description  of  an  experiment 
in  the  educative  effect  of  self-government  in  one  of  the  lower  forms  of  Rugby 
School,  England. 

SMITH,  E.  L.  "Project  of  Everyday  Machines."  General  Sci- 
ence Quarterly,  3:31-33  (i9J9)- 

An  introduction  to  physics  through  everyday  machines  like  doorknobs, 
crowbars,  and  egg-beaters.  Complex  machines  are  finally  analyzed  into  the 
simple  machines  of  which  they  are  composed. 

SNEDDEN,  D.  "Project  as  a  Teaching  Unit."  School  and  Society, 
4:419-23  (1916). 

Discussion  of  various  units:  the  question  and  answer,  the  lesson,  the  topic, 
and  the  project.  Characteristics,  definition,  history,  and  classification  of 
projects. 

— .      "Project    Method    of    Teaching    Home    Making." 
Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  5:94-96  (1919). 
Notes  of  an  address  which  are  suggestive  as  to  method  and  contain  a  list  of 
relevant  projects. 

SPEYER  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  By  the  staff  and  supervisors  of 
the  experimental  and  demonstration  school  of  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University.  iSopp.  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University  (1913). 

The  interrelation  of  the  content  of  the  subjects  of  the  curriculum,  with  pro- 
jects and  sources  of  data.  Projects  and  sources  accompany  each  grade  cur- 
riculum. Projects  are  found  most  frequently  with  the  subject  of  industrial 
arts.  Rich  in  concrete  suggestion  from  the  kindergarten  through  the  eighth 
grade.  Excellent  lists  of  books  needed  by  children  and  teachers. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   THE    PROJECT   METHOD  169 

STEVENSON,  J.  A.     "Problems  and  Projects."     School  and  Home 
Education,  38:209-15  (1919). 

Method;  definitions;  projects  and  problems  differentiated  and  classified; 
summary. 

.     "Project   and   the   Curriculum."     School  and  Home 

Education,  38:146-51  (1919). 

Some  principles  of  curriculum  making.  An  analysis  of  a  first  grade  project: 
making  a  flower  garden.  "Projects  need  not  cut  across  subjects  of  the  cur- 
riculum." Project  as  the  basis  of  curriculum  organization. 


.     "Project  in  Science  Teaching."     School  Science  and 

Mathematics,   19:50-63  (1919).     School  and  Home  Education, 
38:110-14  (1919).    General  Science  Quarterly,  3:195-209  (1918). 

Concept,  implications,  and  description  of  the  project;  standards;  related 
concepts  in  common  use,  including  that  of  scientific  method.  A  sound,  com- 
prehensive, suggestive  study,  in  which  Dewey's  philosophy  of  purpose  is 
central. 

STONE,  C.  H.     "Making  a  Match, — a  Project."     General  Science 
Quarterly,  3:89-90  (1919)- 
The  process  of  making  a  match  and  its  meaning  in  education. 

STRAYER,  G.  D.  and  NORSWORTHY,  N.  How  to  Teach.  297pp. 
Macmillan  (1917). 

The  chapters  entitled  "How  Thinking  may  be  Stimulated"  and  "How  to 
Study"  are  especially  relevant  and  worth  careful  reading  by  those  who  teach. 
Our  scientific  knowledge  of  learning  and  of  the  improvement  of  functions  is 
here  related  to  the  processes  of  education. 

TALLMAN,  L.  "New  Types  of  Class  Teaching."  Religious  Edu- 
cation, 12:271-80  (1917). 

Discussion  of  project  method.  Illustrative  material.  Emphasis  on  real 
life  situations,  and  upon  natural  method  and  socialized  activity.  Bearing  of 
project  method  upon  religious  education. 

TAYLOR,  W.  S.  "Project  Methods  in  Teacher-training  Courses." 
School  and  \Society,  8:487-90  (1918).  N.  E.  A.  Proceedings, 
pp.  276-78  (1918). 

Instruction  in  agriculture  in  the  secondary  school  was  lifeless  until  projects 
were  used.  The  beneficial  results  and  the  criteria  of  the  method  in  agriculture 
are  discussed. 


170  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

THOMPSON,  C.  J.  "Study  of  the  Socialized  versus  the  Academic 
Method  of  Teaching  Written  Composition."  School  Review, 
27:110-133  (1919). 

An  experimental  and  a  control  group  are  compared  through  measurements, 
with  the  conclusion  that  the  method  which  utilizes  the  social  elements  of  the 
composition  and  group  stimuli  gives  decidedly  better  results.  Recommenda- 
tions as  to  procedure  are  included. 

THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  Education,  A  First  Book.  Chap.  IX  and  X, 
pp.  168-202.  Macmillan  (1912). 

Really,  if  not  professedly,  concerned  with  aspects  of  project  method. 
Assuming  the  scientific  attitude  and  the  relevancy  of  purposes  in  educative 
processes,  these  chapters  give  concrete  and  illuminating  direction. 

— .     "Education  for  Initiative  and  Originality."    Teachers 

College  Record,  17:405-16  (1916);    Teachers  College  Bulletin, 
nth  Series,  No.  4  (1919). 

Two  virtues  basic  in  project  method,  in  ethics  in  use,  and  in  civic  practice. 
"From  the  standpoint  of  education  in  a  democratic  state  and  for  the  sake  of 
efficient  democratic  citizenship."  The  definitions  proposed  do  much  to  clarify 
ethical  educational  thought.  Certainly  one  of  the  best  analyses  of  these  traits  . 


— .    Educational  Psychology.    3  vol.,  327;    452;    408  pp. 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  (1913-14). 

Pertinent  to  project  study  because  every  method  of  education  must  concern 
reflexes,  instincts,  capacities,  laws  of  learning,  and  the  factors  and  conditions 
of  improvement.  A  scientific  correlate  of  the  John  Dewey  philosophy  of  educa- 
tion as  a  base  of  the  problem-project  method. 


.    Principles  of  Teaching.    293pp.    A.  G.  Seiler  (1906). 

Invaluable  for  teachers  making  the  transition  to  methods  involving  reason- 
ing by  children.  Very  helpful  on  the  technique  of  handling  the  element  of 
interest,  on  habit  formation,  and  on  much  else. 

TRANER,   F.  W.     "Socializing  the  Study  of  History."    School 
Review,  25:714-21  (1917). 

Presents  criteria  for  the  selection  of  content.  Favors  the  "topical  or  problem 
method."  The  aim  of  education  is  stated  to  be  adjustment  to  social  environ- 
ment. 

Twiss,  G.  R.     "Outlook  for  the  Application  of  Scientific  Method 
to  the  Problem  of  Science  Teaching."    N.  E.  A.  Proceedings, 
52:723-28  (1914)- 
Contains  a  series  of  theses  bearing  upon  the  project  method. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF    THE    PROJECT   METHOD  171 

Twiss,  G.  R.    A  Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Science  Teaching. 

458pp.     Macmillan  (1917). 

A  thoroughgoing  text  on  scientific  method  as  fundamental  in  the  progress 
of  the  race  and  of  the  child's  education;  replete  with  excellent  suggestions  of 
method  in  teaching  and  of  the  materials  of  equipment.  Many  principles  of 
scientific  method  and  subjects  of  the  curriculum  are  treated.  Problem- 
project  method  is  in  the  last  analysis  scientific  method. 

UPTON,  S.  M.  and  CHASSELL,  C.  F.     "Scale  for  Measuring  the 
Importance  of  Habits  of  Good  Citizenship."     Teachers  College 
Record,  20:36-65  (1919). 
A  scale  in  which  certain  virtues  important  in  project  method  find  prominent 

place. 

VAN  BUSKIRK,  E.  F.  and  SMITH,  E.  L.     Science  of  Everyday  Life. 

4i6pp.     Houghton  Mifflin  (1919). 

A  book  of  projects  for  the  junior  high  school:  air,  fire,  breathing,  health, 
water,  soil,  foods,  control  of  nature,  homes,  clothing,  lighting,  heating,  ma- 
chines, transportation,  and  the  origin  and  betterment  of  life.  A  goodly  wealth 
of  the  matter  and  spirit  of  projects  in  general  science,  with  many  and  excellent 
illustrations.  Of  undoubted  value  for  the  courses  in  general  science  in  junior 
high  schools. 

VON  HOPE,  G.  D.     "Development  of  a  Project."     Teachers  Col- 
lege Record,  17:240-46  (1916). 
"The  sixth  grade  in  the  Horace  Mann  School  are  studying  science  regardless 

of  every  artificial  division.    The  class  chooses  a  project  .      .      .     the  teacher 

then  presents  the  information  to  follow  .      .      .     the  trend  of  the  thought  of 

the  pupils."    One  project  is  presented. 

— .     "Giving  the  Project  Method  a  Trial."    School  Sci- 
ence and  Mathematics,  16:763-67  (1916). 
Certain  aims  are  erected  and  cautions  suggested. 

WAKE,  W.  S.     "Project  in  General  Science."      School  Science 

and  Mathematics,  19:643-50  (1919). 

A  stimulating,  well-organized  article  dealing  with  aspects  of  the  project 
method  as  follows:  need  of  the  method;  laboratory;  definitions  by  nine 
authors  with  the  author's  criticisms;  approaching,  beginning,  developing, 
culminating,  and  closing  projects;  attitude;  twelve  types  of  projects;  induc- 
tion and  deduction;  the  text-book. 

WATSON,    C.   W.     "School   Home-Garden   Project."     Nebraska 

Teacher,  20:293-97  (1918). 

Presents  the  organization  and  results  of  a  project  involving  the  cooperation 
of  boys  and  girls  of  a  state. 


172  TEACHERS    COLLEGE    RECORD 

WHIPPLE,    G.    M.     How    to    Study    Effectively.     44pp.     Public 
School  Pub.  Co.  (1916). 

Clear,  sound,  detailed  directions  for  guidance  of  children's  study  in  the 
elementary  school,  high  school,  and  college.  Contains  much  that  will  help 
many  an  adult. 

WIECKING,    A.      "Some    Suggestions    for    Primary    Industrial 
Projects."    School  Progress,  1:3-6  (1919). 

WILLIAMS,  R.  H.     "Introductory  Fire  Lesson."     General  Science 
Quarterly,  1:216-21  (1917). 

Detailed  account  of  a  project  and  of  class  conversation  connected  with  it. 

WILSON,   G.   M.     "Motivation  of  Seventh  and   Eighth   Grade 
History  Work."     Elementary  School  Teacher,  13:11-16  (1912). 

A  very  interesting  suggestion.  An  8B  class  in  United  States  history  used 
Madison's  Journal  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  and  organized  itself  into 
such  a  convention,  the  teacher  being  elected  to  play  the  roll  of  Washington. 
Other  members  of  the  group  played  other  rolls.  The  dramatic  treatment 
aroused  undoubted  interest. 

WILSON,  H.  B.  and  WILSON,  G.  M.     The  Motivation  of  School 
Work.     265pp.     Houghton  Mifflin  (1916). 

Treats  of  the  basis  of  motive,  and  of  motivation  in  school  subjects  and  in 
extra-curricular  activities.  Much  concrete  illustration.  Very  helpful. 


.     "Problem  Attack  in  Teaching."     Elementary  School 

Journal,  17749-55  (191 7)- 

The  problem  attack  in  the  presence  of  conscious  difficulty  is  requisite  to 
good  school  work,  and  results  in  real  learning  and  economy.  Two  types  of 
problems  are  presented  and  one  illustration  from  history  is  given  in  some  detail. 

WOODHULL,  J.  F.      "Aims  and  Methods  of  Science  Teaching." 
General  Science  Quarterly,  2:249—50  (1917). 

An  analysis  of  the  project  method  as  that  used  by  the  masters  of  investiga- 
tion of  all  time.  Its  advantages  as  against  topical  methods.  A  convincing 
presentation. 

.     "General  Science."     School  Science  and  Mathematics, 


13499-500  (1913)- 

Correspondence  is  invited  with  reference  to  suggestions  as  to  a  survey  of 
children's  interests,  the  ignorances  of  adults,  etc. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD  173 

WOODHULL,  J.  F.  "General  Science, — Summary  of  Opinion  under 
Revision."  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  14 1600-602  (1914) ; 
Educational  Review,  48:298-300  (1914). 

Some  unusually  significant  conclusions  regarding  children's  interests,  with 
implications  regarding  method.  A  drastic  but  sound  arraignment  of  "prepara- 
tory science." 


"Natural    Method."     School    and    Society,    3:64-65 


(1916). 

We  can  teach  concepts  only  through  experiences.     Intimate  relation  of 
projects  in  physics  with  life.    The  presentation  is  suggestive  and  forceful. 


— .     "Project  Method  in  the  Teaching  of  Science."   School 
and  Society,  8:41-44  (1918). 

What  the  method  is  and  is  not.  The  method  is  that  of  the  masters  of  all 
time.  It  must  be  thoroughly  acquired  by  teachers  and  used  habitually  by 
them;  then  we  may  expect  results  from  their  pupils.  Sound  and  suggestive. 

— .     "Projects     in    Science."     Teachers     College    Record, 


17:31-39  (1916). 

Certain  problems  were  solved  and  projects  done  by  five  university  professors. 
Three  other  projects  are  described  in  some  detail.  All  were  from  real  life  and 
were  really  problems.  Valuable  as  suggesting  the  compelling  character  of  real 
problem-projects.  The  philosophy  of  purpose  is  assumed. 

— .     "Project  of  a  Frozen  Water-pipe."     General  Science 


Quarterly,  3:107  (1919)- 

Edited  from  a  boy's  note-book.    A  piece  of  education  in  a  natural  setting. 

.     "Science  Teaching  by  Projects."     School  Science  and 

Mathematics,  15:225-32  (1915). 

Project  method  is  presented  as  research,  scientific  method,  the  method  of  the 
masters,  and  the  method  of  everyday  effective  living.  There  is  a  considerable 
range  of  pertinent  quotation.  The  absurdities  of  certain  commonly  used 
methods  are  rehearsed.  A  widely  suggestive  and  important  reading. 


.     Studies  of  the  Masters — -"Lyell."     General  Science 

Quarterly,  3:141-46  (1919).  "Scientific  Orthodoxy."  General 
Science  Quarterly,  3:216— 18  (1919).  "Darwin."  General  Science 
Quarterly,  4:275-82  (1919). 

Evidence  is  here  adduced  to  prove  that  the  method  of  work  of  certain  mas- 
ters of  investigation  is  that  since  called  project  method. 


174          TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD 

WOODHULL,  J.  F.  Teaching  of  Science.  249pp.  Macmillan  (1918). 

Chap.  XIII.  Science  Teaching  by  Projects.  A  sound  view  and  a  wealth  of 
pertinent  quotation.  Chap.  XIV.  Projects  in  Science.  Chap.  XV.  Natural 
Method. 

WORKMAN,   L.    L.     "Project   in   Ventilation."     General  Science 
Quarterly,  3'-33-34  (1919)- 
An  interesting  project  described. 

WRIGHT,   W.   R.     "Some   Effects  of   Incentives  on   Work  and 
Fatigue."    Psychological  Review,  13:23-24  (1906). 

One  of  the  few  experimental  studies  bearing  on  the  arousing  of  initiative. 
The  conclusions  are  of  prime  interest  in  their  bearing  upon  the  problem-project 
method. 

WRITE,  R.     "Socialized  Recitation."    Atlantic  Educational  Jour- 
nal, 13:175-81  (1917)- 
A  socialized  recitation  in  geography. 

ZIEGLER,    C.   W.     "Laboratory  Method  in  English  Teaching." 

English  Journal,  8:3  (1919). 

Describes,  as  in  a  friendly  interview,  aspects  of  a  new  method  in  high  school 
English:  lengthened  school  day;  supervised  study;  equipment;  relations  in 
the  curriculum;  content;  spirit  of  industry;  responses  in  educative  activities 
beyond  school  requirement;  aim  and  method  in  poetry;  difficulties;  text- 
books. 


COLLEGE  NEWS  AND 
DEPARTMENTAL  NOTES 


TRUSTEES 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Trustees  of  Teachers  College  on  Thursday, 
February  19,  Frank  P.  Graves,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D.,  LL.D.,  dean  of 
the  School  of  Education  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  was 
unanimously  elected  alumni  trustee.  Dean  Graves  will  begin  - 
the  customary  two  years  of  service  at  the  next  meeting  of  the 
Trustees  in  April. 

The  following  new  appointment  to  the  Faculty  of  Education 
was  made  at  the  direction  of  the  Trustees :  Harold  Ordway  Rugg, 
Ph.D.,  to  be  associate  professor  of  education,  with  a  seat  in  the 
Faculty  of  Education.  Dr.  Rugg  has  been  connected  with  the 
University  of  Chicago  since  1915,  first  as  instructor  in  education, 
then  as  assistant  professor,  and  in  1918  as  associate  professor. 
He  will  have  charge  of  the  work  in  psychological  measurements 
in  The  Lincoln  School,  with  which  institution  he  has  been  con- 
nected since  the  first  of  January. 

The  following  promotions  of  members  of  the  Teachers  College 
staff  were  announced:  Thomas  Henry  Briggs,  Ph.D.,  from  associ- 
ate professor  to  professor  of  education;  Walter  H.  Eddy,  Ph.D., 
from  assistant  professor  to  associate  professor  of  physiological 
chemistry;  Edward  S.  Evenden,  Ph.D.,  from  associate  in  educa- 
tion to  assistant  professor  of  education;  Arthur  I.  Gates,  Ph.D., 
from  instructor  in  psychology  to  assistant  professor  of  education. 

The  resignation  of  Dr.  Virgil  Prettyman,  for  twenty-five  years 
principal  of  the  Horace  Mann  School  for  Boys,  was  accepted  with 
regret.  Dr.  Prettyman's  resignation  will  take  effect  June  30, 
1920.  As  a  mark  of  their  appreciation,  the  Trustees  granted  him 
leave  of  absence  from  December  31,  the  date  of  his  withdrawal 
from  the  School,  until  June  30.  Dr.  Prettyman  has  accepted  a 
business  call  of  an  attractive  nature,  and  the  best  wishes  of  his 

175 


1 76  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

associates  in  the  College  and  the  School  go  with  him  into  his 
new  work.  The  eminent  success  he  has  attained  as  a  leader  of 
boys,  his  integrity  of  character,  his  devotion  to  a  trust,  and  his 
loyalty  to  his  co-workers  will  surely  make  him  a  leader  of  men. 
The  conduct  of  the  School  is  now  in  the  hands  of  Professor  Frank- 
lin W.  Johnson,  formerly  principal  of  the  University  of  Chicago 
High  School,  now  associate  professor  of  education  in  Teachers 
College. 

Leave  of  absence  has  been  granted  for  the  Winter  Session  of 
the  next  academic  year  to  Professor  Mary  T.  Whitley,  and  for 
the  Spring  Session  to  Professors  Broadhurst,  Nutting,  Winchell, 
and  Strayer. 

The  many  graduates  of  the  College  in  the  departments  of 
household  arts  will  be  glad  to  know  that  the  Trustees  have  given 
to  the  Household  Arts  Building  the  name  of  Grace  Dodge  Build- 
ing. That  building  was  a  gift  to  the  College  in  1909  by  Miss 
Dodge  in  memory  of  her  mother. 

The  Trustees  sanctioned  also  the  change  of  name  of  The  Ban- 
croft and  Janus  Court,  the  apartment  houses  recently  acquired 
by  purchase  by  the  College  for  use  as  dormitories,  to  Bancroft 
Hall  and  Seth  Low  Hall,  respectively. 

EDUCATIONAL  ADMINISTRATION 

One  of  the  greatest  needs  in  education  to-day  is  to  secure  a 
more  intelligent  public  interest  in  the  work,  aims,  and  methods 
of  our  public  schools.  Realizing  this,  Dean  Russell  suggested  at 
the  recent  Alumni  Conferences  that  the  College  should  provide 
training  in  this  work.  It  was  his  opinion  that  the  task  was  pri- 
marily the  school  administrator's,  and  he  recommended  that 
courses  be  organized  to  train  school  superintendents  for  it. 

These  courses  are  now  being  arranged  in  the  department  of 
educational  administration  where  they  will  be  given  under  the 
direct  supervision  of  Professors  Strayer,  Engelhardt,  and  Even- 
den.  It  will  be  the  purpose  of  the  courses  not  only  to  acquaint 
students  with  the  best  publicity  methods,  but  also  to  give  them 
actual  practice.  The  publicity  campaign  for  Teachers  College 
and  the  work  of  its  various  departments  and  schools  will  furnish 
the  laboratory  material. 


EDUCATIONAL   ADMINISTRATION  177 

"How  to  secure  citizen  cooperation  through  public  information" 
was  the  problem  which  caused  Professor  Strayer  to  meet  early  in 
January  with  Superintendent  H.  S.  Weet,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.; 
Superintendent  Henry  Snyder,  of  Jersey  City,  N.  J.;  Superin- 
tendent Frank  V.  Thompson,  of  Boston,  Mass.;  Superintendent- 
elect  R.  G.  Jones,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Mr.  W.  J.  Donald,  secre- 
tary of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. ;  Mr.  Harold 
S.  Buttenheim,  president  and  Mr.  F.  A.  Richardson,  secretary 
of  the  American  City  Bureau. 

It  was  decided  at  this  meeting  that  one  of  the  necessary  steps 
in  giving  publicity  to  facts  about  the  public  schools  in  the  United 
States  was  to  enlist  the  cooperation  of  civic  and  commercial 
organizations  in  cities  throughout  the  country.  Accordingly,  a 
group  of  school  superintendents  and  secretaries  of  chambers  of 
commerce  were  invited  to  meet  at  Cleveland  during  the  meeting 
of  the  Superintendence  Section  of  the  N.  E.  A.  Those  who 
attended  the  meeting  at  Cleveland  represented  cities  of  all  sizes 
in  all  sections  of  the  United  States.  They  unanimously  decided 
to  undertake,  through  the  cooperation  of  school  officials  and  civic 
and  commercial  organizations,  a  publicity  campaign  which  would 
present  the  facts  about  school  conditions  to  the  people  of  the 
United  States.  An  executive  committee  was  chosen  to  plan  the 
execution  of  this  publicity  campaign.  This  committee  consists 
of  Dr.  George  D.  Strayer,  president,  Mr.  F.  A.  Richardson,  secre- 
tary, Superintendents  H.  S.  Weet,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y. ;  J.  H. 
Beveridge,  of  Omaha,  Neb.;  R.  G.  Jones,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio; 
Henry  Snyder,  of  Jersey  City,  N.  J.;  Messrs.  H.  H.  Davidson, 
secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Erie,  Pa.;  W.  J.  Donald, 
secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. ; 
F.  B.  Pierce,  secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Bridgeport, 
Conn. ;  and  E.  L.  McColgin,  secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, Dayton,  Ohio. 

The  executive  committee  met  at  Teachers  College  on  March  18 
and  perfected  plans  for  carrying  out  a  nation-wide  campaign 
through  the  efforts  of  school  officials  and  civic  and  commercial 
organizations.  Information  is  to  be  collected  and  published  along 
these  five  lines: 

i.  What  sort  of  teachers  do  American  cities  employ  and  how 
well  do  they  reward  them? 


178  TEACHERS    COLLEGE    RECORD 

2.  How  well  do  American  cities  house  their  school  children? 

3.  How  adequately  is  the  health  of  school  children  safeguarded? 

4.  How  will  the  rising  costs  of  education  be  met? 

5.  What  is  to  be  the  future  educational  program  in  American 
cities? 

The  inquiry  relative  to  the  teacher  situation  is  already  under 
way,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  information  coming  from  this 
investigation  will  be  of  great  assistance  in  educating  public 
opinion  on  the  work  which  must  be  done  in  order  to  get  and  keep 
good  teachers. 

The  department  has  been  engaged  in  making  a  school  building 
survey  and  developing  a  school  building  program  for  the  school 
system  of  Greensboro,  N.  C.,  under  the  direction  of  Professors 
Strayer  and  Engelhardt.  The  group  of  graduate  students  from 
the  practicum  in  educational  administration  who  were  engaged  in 
this  survey  include  the  following:  P.  R.  Stevenson,  dean  and 
director  of  research,  University  of  Omaha,  Neb.;  W.  S.  Hertzog, 
formerly  principal  of  State  Normal  School,  California,  Pa.; 
R.  G.  Reynolds,  of  the  Vermont  State  Education  Depart- 
ment; F.  B.  Knight,  formerly  superintendent  of  schools,  Danvers, 
Mass.;  A.  J.  Lang,  principal  of  elementary  school,  Kingston, 
N.  Y.;  J.  C.  Morrison,  superintendent  of  schools,  Leonia,  N.  J.; 
M.  W.  Longman,  of  the  Western  State  Normal  School,  Kalama- 
zoo,  Mich.;  W.  W.  Curfman,  formerly  superintendent  of  schools, 
Mulvane,  Kan. 

The  survey  party  left  New  York  January  18  and  spent  the 
following  week  collecting  data  to  be  put  into  report  form  and 
made  available  for  an  extensive  publicity  campaign  in  Greens- 
boro before  March  15. 

EDUCATIONAL  PSYCHOLOGY 

Twelve  graduate  students  of  psychology  have  undertaken  a 
mental  survey  of  Public  School  1 1  (Manhattan)  during  the  cur- 
rent semester.  The  work  is  under  the  immediate  direction  and 
supervision  of  Miss  Elizabeth  Farrell  and  Professor  Leta  S. 
Hollingworth.  Mr.  Benjamin  B.  Greenberg,  principal  of  Public 
School  1 1,  is  a  former  student  of  Teachers  College. 


FOODS   AND   COOKERY  179 

Professor  William  A.  McCall  will  be  engaged  during  the  spring 
and  summer  in  the  construction  of  a  series  of  reading  scales  and 
in  the  study  of  public  school  problems  in  silent  reading. 

FINE  ARTS 

Miss  Sallie  B.  Tannahill,  instructor  in  fine  arts,  has  been  giving 
a  series  of  four  lectures,  with  lantern  slides,  on  the  subject  of 
"Lettering  in  Decorative  and  Commercial  Art"  at  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art  to  high  school  boys  and  girls  who  are 
especially  interested  in  the  subject  of  lettering.  Miss  Tannahill 
designed  and  made  the  book  which  was  presented  to  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
V.  Everit  Macy  containing  the  signatures  of  those  present  at  the 
opening  of  the  Teachers  College  Country  Club,  in  appreciation  of 
the  generosity  and  though tfulness  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Macy.  The 
book  was  presented  by  Professor  Henry  C.  Pearson. 

Professor  Grace  Cornell  opened  the  course  at  the  New  York 
Public  Library  on  The  Art  of  the  Book  with  a  lecture  on  "The 
Principles  of  Design." 

FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

The  department  of  foods  and  cookery  is  planning  to  issue  a 
Teachers  College  Cook  Book  in  the  course  of  the  next  academic 
year. 

The  department  held  a  conference  at  the  College  on  March  23. 
The  subject  was  "The  Relations  Between  Teachers  of  Home 
Economics  and  Certain  Phases  of  the  Business  World." 

On  March  24  delegates  from  the  Community  Councils  of  New 
York  held  a  meeting  regarding  marketing  conditions.  Professor 
Van  Arsdale  spoke  on  "How  the  New  York  State  Department  of 
Farms  and  Markets  Can  Help  the  New  York  City  Consumer," 
and  Miss  Anna  Barrows  gave  a  demonstration  on  potatoes. 

Miss  Marion  E.  Dickenson,  instructor  of  the  class  in  large 
quantity  cookery,  died  very  suddenly  early  in  January.  Miss 
Elizabeth  H.  Bohn  is  conducting  the  class  this  semester,  assisted 
by  Miss  Alice  Conway. 

During  the  annual  reunion  and  conferences  of  the  Alumni 
Association  the  department  served  the  household  arts  luncheon. 
About  one  hundred  and  fifty  were  present. 


ISO  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

Interesting  experiments  are  being  carried  on  in  experimental 
cookery  in  cooperation  with  the  department  of  physiological 
chemistry.  Miss  Anna  Colman  and  Miss  Mary  Barber,  instruc- 
tors in  experimental  cookery,  are  working  on  problems  in  cookery 
with  Professor  Walter  H.  Eddy,  of  the  department  of  physiologi- 
cal chemistry.  This  cooperation  indicates  an  interesting  growth 
for  the  future  of  this  work. 


HOUSEHOLD  AND  INSTITUTION  ADMINISTRATION 

Miss  Katharine  A.  Fisher,  instructor  in  household  arts,  has 
completed  a  bulletin  on  school  lunches  for  the  Child  Health 
Organization.  The  bulletin  will  be  published  by  the  Federal 
Bureau  of  Education.  Miss  L.  Ray  Balderston,  instructor  in 
household  arts,  has  prepared  a  bulletin  on  laundering  to  be 
published  by  the  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture. 

A  recent  round  table  conference  was  held  for  household 
administration  students.  The  following  students,  former  gradu- 
ates of  the  department,  took  part  in  the  discussion:  Miss  Mary 
Elizabeth  Cooley,  director  of  The  Home  Efficiency  School;  Miss 
Eleanor  Wells,  social  service  dietitian,  Post  Graduate  Hospital, 
New  York  City;  Miss  Alice  Bough  ton,  director  of  statistical 
department,  J.  Walter  Thompson  Company,  New  York  City; 
Miss  Doris  Tisdale,  director  of  lunch  room,  Horace  Mann 
School  for  Boys;  Miss  Stella  Sondheim,  manager  of  Wayside 
Coffee  House,  Richmond  Hill,  New  York. 

Mrs.  Louise  Nellis,  M.A.,  1916,  has  recently  completed  in 
Greenwich  Village  a  survey  of  activities  linked  with  the  home. 
Teachers  of  household  arts,  visiting  nurses,  settlement  workers,  and 
others  have  formed  a  Greenwich  Village  Home  Conference.  The 
slogan  at  present  is  "Every  Child  in  Greenwich  Village  up  to  Par." 

A  conference  on  problems  of  the  industrial  canteen  was  held 
recently  for  students  in  public  health  nursing  and  institution 
administration.  Talks  were  given  by  Miss  Grace  Billings,  direc- 
tor of  employees'  lunch  room  at  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank;  Mrs. 
Pendergast,  of  National  Cloak  and  Suit  Company;  Miss  Pren- 
tice, of  Lord  and  Taylor's. 

A  conference  is  being  arranged  on  "Group  Living"  to  be  held 
at  Lake  Placid,  May  26  to  31.  Organizations  cooperating  in- 


HOUSEHOLD   ECONOMICS  l8l 

elude  the  Institution  Section  of  the  Home  Economics  Associa- 
tion; American  Dietetic  Association;  Conference  of  Deans  of 
Women;  Economic  Secretaries  of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  Topics  to 
be  discussed  include  community  service,  cooperative  buying, 
personnel  problems  of  employees.  There  will  be  an  important 
session  on  research,  at  which  methods  now  used  at  the  Harvard 
School  of  Business  Research,  Bryn  Mawr,  and  bureaus  of  social 
and  industrial  research  will  be  discussed.  Professor  E.  H. 
Gunther  is  acting  as  chairman  of  the  program  committee. 

HOUSEHOLD  ECONOMICS 

The  department  of  household  economics  is  being  constantly 
called  upon  for  advice  regarding  individual  and  family  budgets  of 
expenditure,  and  has  started  a  considerable  service  of  consultancy 
on  problems  of  this  sort.  Such  questions  come  not  alone  from 
persons  of  small  income.  The  problem  of  making  ends  meet 
seems  to  be  acute  with  incomes  that  would  ordinarily  be  called 
very  liberal.  In  some  cases  graduate  students  of  the  department 
are  working  with  individual  families,  studying  their  expenditure 
problem.  In  other  cases  the  matter  has  been  presented  before 
clubs  of  women  or  mixed  groups  of  men  and  women  followed  by 
individual  conferences. 

Recent  addresses  have  been  made  by  Professor  Benjamin  R. 
Andrews  before  the  State  Conference  of  Extension  Workers  of 
New  York  State,  at  the  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.;  the  Massachusetts  Conference  of  Extension  Workers,  at 
Amherst,  Mass.;  the  Women's  Club,  Elizabeth,  N.  J.;  the 
Book  Club,  Edgewater,  N.  J.;  the  Homemakers  Club,  Hartford, 
Conn.;  the  Homemakers  Association  of  the  Oranges  at  East 
Orange,  N.  J.  Professor  Andrews  has  also  continued  an  informal 
relationship  as  adviser  on  thrift  problems  with  the  Savings  Divi- 
sion, United  States  Treasury  Department,  Washington,  D.  C., 
where  he  served  as  associate  director  during  1919  while  on  leave 
of  absence  from  the  College. 

Professor  Andrews  has  been  appointed  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Home  Economics  of  the  Charity  Organization  Society 
of  New  York  for  the  year  1920.  This  committee  is  supervising 
the  development  of  household  arts  in  the  social  work  field,  both 


1 82  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

in  the  activities  of  the  Charity  Organization  Society  and  in  the 
field  of  social  work  generally.  The  secretary  of  the  committee  is 
Miss  Emma  A.  Winslow,  who  is  director  of  home  economics 
social  work  for  the  Charity  Organization  Society  and  who,  as  a 
member  of  the  staff  of  Teachers  College,  gives  courses  in  Home- 
making  Adjustments  in  Social  Work,  Field  Work  in  Family 
Visiting,  and  Social  Work  in  Household  Arts.  Under  this  com- 
mittee several  important  studies  have  been  made  in  the  past 
few  years  in  the  field  of  budgets  and  homemaking  and  of  the 
application  of  home  economics  to  social  work. 

This  committee,  through  a  sub-committee  of  which  Professor 
Cora  M.  Winchell  is  chairman,  organized  in  June,  1919,  a  month's 
course  in  Homemaking  Adjustments  which  was  taken  by  twenty- 
five  leading  home  economics  workers  from  various  parts  of  the 
country.  This  course  will  be  offered  in  a  more  extended  form  in 
June,  1920,  and  Teachers  College  will  give  credit  for  it  to  those 
registering. 

MATHEMATICS 

Professor  David  Eugene  Smith  was  elected  president  of  the 
American  Mathematical  Association  at  its  meeting  during  the 
Christmas  holidays.  This  association  is  composed  of  more  than 
1 200  mathematicians  in  this  country. 

Professor  Smith  addressed  the  mathematics  students  at  Hunter 
College  on  January  9. 

The  department  of  mathematics  held  a  round  table  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Alumni  Meeting  February  21 ;  Miss  E.  L.  Noonan, 
of  Teachers  College,  was  chairman.  The  general  topic  discussed 
was  the  work  of  the  Committee  on  Mathematical  Requirements 
established  by  the  Mathematical  Association  of  America,  with 
addresses  as  follows:  "The  General  Nature  and  Progress  of  the 
Work  of  the  Committee,"  by  Professor  J.  W.  Young,  Dartmouth 
College.  "The  Tentative  Report  on  the  Reorganization  of  the 
First  Courses  in  Secondary  School  Mathematics,"  by  Miss 
Vera  Sanford,  Berkeley  Institute,  Brooklyn.  "The  Status  of 
the  Work  with  Respect  to  Demonstrative  Geometry,"  by  Pro- 
fessor Smith.  "The  Nature  of  the  Investigation  being  Carried 
on  with  Respect  to  Mathematics  in  Experimental  Schools,"  by 
Mr.  Raleigh  Schorling,  The  Lincoln  School. 


RECREATIONAL   LEADERSHIP  183 

MODERN  LANGUAGES 

Professor  E.  W.  Bagster-Collins  has  recently  been  appointed 
to  serve  on  the  executive  committees  of  the  National  Federation 
of  Modern  Language  Teachers,  and  the  Modern  Language  Asso- 
ciation of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland.  He  is  also  a  member 
of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen  appointed  by  the  National  Federa- 
tion to  cooperate  with  a  similar  committee  of  the  Modern 
Language  Association  for  the  purpose  of  drafting  resolutions  ex- 
pressing the  guiding  principles  of  these  two  leading  associations 
of  modern  language  teachers. 

Mr.  M.  A.  Bach,  instructor  in  German,  is  to  give  on  March  20, 
a  lecture  before  the  Association  for  Social  Service  on  "The  Social 
and  Cultural  Background  of  German-Austria." 

Miss  Helene  Harvitt,  instructor  in  French,  has  obtained  a 
fellowship  awarded  by  the  Society  for  American  Fellowships  in 
French  Universities  for  1920-1921. 

RECREATIONAL  LEADERSHIP 

The  department  of  scouting  and  recreational  leadership,  under 
the  direction  of  Professor  Elbert  K.  Fretwell,  and  in  cooperation 
with  the  New  York  State  College  of  Forestry,  the  Camp  Depart- 
ment of  the  Palisades  Interstate  Park,  and  various  other  organiza- 
tions interested  in  camping,  is  conducting,  from  March  8  to 
May  3,  a  series  of  eight  meetings  designed  to  promote  camping, 
train  camp  leaders,  and  increase  the  efficient  utilization  of  the 
camper's  time  while  in  camp.  The  meetings  will  be  held  at 
Teachers  College.  The  week  of  March  27  will  be  devoted  to 
actual  camp  life  in  the  Palisades  Interstate  Park.  Regular  direc- 
tors of  the  course  will  be  assisted  by  specialists  from  the  New  York 
College  of  Forestry  and  others,  who  will  lecture,  lead  discussions, 
and  conduct  daily  instructional,  recreational,  and  exploratory 
hikes  in  Interstate  Park. 

Among  the  special  leaders  taking  active  part  in  the  course  are 
Dean  James  E.  Russell,  Professor  Elbert  K.  Fretwell,  Dr.  Jesse 
F.  Williams,  Mrs.  Charles  H.  Farnsworth,  Dr.  George  L.  Meylan, 
and  Mr.  Abraham  Rosenthal. 


1 84  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

The  Speyer  Junior  High  School  is  continuing  as  a  cooperative 
experiment  under  the  direction  of  Teachers  College  and  the  City 
of  New  York,  with  approximately  550  pupils,  mostly  boys.  The 
school  is  now  an  annex  of  Public  School  43,  Dr.  J.  K.  VanDen- 
burg,  principal.  Professor  Thomas  H.  Briggs,  the  educational 
adviser,  holds  weekly  meetings  with  the  teachers  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  the  instruction ;  and  all  activities  are  directed  by  the 
regular  staff  of  the  school.  The  homogeneous  grouping  of  pupils, 
which  began  with  the  opening  of  the  school  in  1915,  has  proved 
so  successful  that  it  has  spread  to  a  number  of  other  public  schools 
in  the  city.  The  Otis  tests  have  been  used  during  the  past  year 
for  the  preliminary  classification  of  pupils  when  they  are  pro- 
moted to  the  seventh  grade;  after  work  has  progressed  for  several 
months  pupils  are  transferred  according  to  the  ability  and  indus- 
try that  they  have  manifested.  The  social  work  of  the  school, 
described  by  Professor  Fretwell  in  the  TEACHERS  COLLEGE  REC- 
ORD for  September,  1919,  is  continued  with  the  pupils  in  the  school 
and  also  with  the  alumni,  both  those  who  are  in  high  schools  and 
those  who  have  gone  to  work.  Each  group  holds  monthly  meet- 
ings, and  the  entire  alumni  body  meets  twice  a  year  to  report  how 
they  are  carrying  out  the  traditions  of  the  school.  The  alumni 
are  also  publishing  a  monthly  paper,  called  the  "Creedonian,"  the 
name  suggesting  the  purpose  of  the  association,  the  popularizing 
of  the  Speyer  Creed. 

Under  the  direction  of  Professors  Briggs  and  Fretwell,  the 
students  in  the  department  of  secondary  education  are  conducting 
a  survey  of  the  Boys  High  School  of  Reading,  Pa.  Five  students 
assisted  Dr.  Briggs  and  Dr.  Fretwell  in  the  field  work;  and  all 
of  the  students  in  Education  481-82  are  participating  in  writing 
the  report  of  the  survey. 

On  January  29-30,  Professor  Briggs  spoke  twice  before  the 
Conference  of  Secondary  School  Principals  of  Maine,  at  Augusta. 
Practically  all  the  principals  of  the  state  and  a  number  of  the 
superintendents  were  in  attendance. 

At  the  January  meeting  of  the  Secondary  Club  Dr.  F.  J.  H. 
Paul,  principal  of  the  DeWitt  Clinton  High  School,  spoke  on  the 
work  of  a  city  cosmopolitan  high  school.  He  told  with  interest- 


HORACE   MANN   SCHOOL  185 

ing  detail  of  the  organization  of  his  school,  which  enrolls  more 
than  5000  pupils,  and  of  the  various  means  used  to  look  after  the 
interests  of  the  individual  boy.  The  club  members  were  espe- 
cially interested  in  the  account  of  the  General  Organization, 
which  under  the  direction  of  the  faculty  takes  charge  of  the 
major  extra-classroom  activities. 

At  the  February  meeting  of  the  Secondary  Club,  Professor 
Arthur  W.  Dow  gave  a  lecture  before  a  large  and  appreciative 
audience  on  "The  Appreciation  of  Art."  The  lecture  was  illus- 
trated by  lantern  slides  of  masterpieces,  both  ancient  and 
modern. 

TEXTILES  AND  CLOTHING 

An  exhibition  of  ready-to-wear  clothing  is  being  shown  by 
Professor  Jane  Fales  in  the  Grace  Dodge  Building.  The  clothing, 
which  includes  as  nearly  as  possible  a  complete  wardrobe  for  a 
college  girl,  is  of  good  wearing  material,  simple  in  design,  and— 
from  the  standpoint  of  present  prices — 'inexpensive.  Two  cloth- 
ing budgets  are  posted,  one  showing  figures  compiled  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  during  August  and  September,  1919,  by  the  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics  for  a  wardrobe  for  a  government  employee; 
the  other  giving  the  1920  figures  in  New  York  for  the  same  list  of 
articles.  In  addition,  various  garments  and  their  prices  are 
shown,  making  the  budget  more  directly  applicable  to  the  college 
girl's  requirements. 

Copies  of  these  budgets  will  be  sent  upon  application  to  Pro- 
fessor Fales.  Suggestions  and  discussion  regarding  the  exhibit 
and  the  budgets  are  requested,  in  order  that  the  work  done  may 
fulfil  its  purpose,  which  is  primarily  to  give  assistance  to  the 
college  students  who  find  it  necessary  to  do  some  buying  this 
spring. 

HORACE  MANN  SCHOOL 

Principal  Henry  C.  Pearson,  who  has  been  in  constant  service 
both  summer  and  winter  for  a  number  of  years,  had  a  leave  of 
absence  for  the  month  of  February,  spending  his  vacation  in  the 
South. 

Miss  M.  E.  Carroll,  teacher  for  the  past  year  and  a  half  of  the 
class  for  exceptional  children,  has  resigned  to  accept  the  position 
of  assistant  local  director  of  the  Manhattan  Council  of  the  Girl 


1 86  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

Scouts  of  America.  Miss  M.  H.  Holmes,  who  has  been  acting  as 
the  primary  assistant,  is  now  teaching  the  class  for  exceptional 
children. 

The  school  auditorium  has  been  equiped  with  two  Simplex 
motion  picture  machines,  and  films  illustrating  geography,  his- 
tory, science,  and  fairy  stories  have  been  shown.  It  is  planned  to 
use  the  school  as  a  laboratory  to  test  the  possibilities  of  the  motion 
picture  for  various  school  purposes. 

The  teachers  of  the  school  have  conducted  a  course  in  Yonkers 
during  the  winter  under  the  auspices  of  the  Department  of  Ex- 
tension Teaching  of  Columbia  University.  The  course  has  dealt 
with  the  theory  and  practice  of  project  teaching  and  has  been 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Charles  W.  Hunt,  vice-principal  of  the 
School.  After  a  preliminary  discussion  of  the  underlying  theory, 
the  following  members  of  the  staff  gave  lectures:  Miss  Agnes 
Burke,  "The  Reorganization  of  the  First  Grade";  Miss  Mildred 
Batchelder,  "The  Materials  and  Objectives  of  the  Second  Grade"; 
Miss  Marie  Hennes,  "The  Program  and  Method  in  the  Fifth 
Grade";  Mr.  Roy  W.  Hatch,  "The  Teaching  of  Civics";  Miss 
Mary  Kirchwey,  "The  Teaching  of  Composition";  Miss  Caroline 
W.  Hotchkiss,  "The  Teaching  of  Geography";  Principal  Pearson. 
"The  Teaching  of  Silent  Reading." 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE  COUNTRY  CLUB 

In  June,  1919,  Mr.  V.  Everit  Macy,  chairman  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees  of  Teachers  College,  and  Mrs.  Macy  offered  to  the  staff 
of  Teachers  College  the  grounds  and  buildings  of  the  former 
Holbrook  School  at  Scarsborough,  N.  Y.,  to  be  used  as  a  country 
club.  The  offer  included  $7500  for  remodeling  and  equipping  the 
buildings.  The  generous  gift  was  accepted,  and  the  buildings 
were  opened  on  September  i. 

The  club  affords  rest  and  recreation  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
spots  in  Westchester  County.  Its  location  commands  an  impres- 
sive view  of  the  Hudson  and  of  the  Jersey  highlands  beyond.  At 
present  about  twenty  guests  can  be  accommodated  but  there  will 
be  room  for  many  more  as  other  parts  of  the  building  are 
equipped. 

The  permanent  officers  of  the  club  are  Professor  H.  C.  Pearson, 
president;  Professor  M.  A.  Nutting,  vice-president;  Mr.  Raleigh 


THE   ADMINISTRATION    CLUB  187 

Schorling,  secretary;  Professor  N.  L.  Engelhardt,  treasurer. 
The  chairmen  of  the  committees  are  Miss  Bertha  E.  Shapleigh, 
house  committee,  Professor  E.  K.  Fretwell,  recreation,  and  Mr. 
C.  W.  Hunt,  membership. 

THE  ADMINISTRATION  CLUB 

The  Administration  Club  held  its  first  meeting  of  the  new  year 
on  January  16  at  the  home  of  Dr.  and  Mrs.  George  D.  Strayer. 
The  meeting  took  the  same  form  as  those  held  during  the  fall. 
Five  of  the  members  of  the  club  acted  as  the  school  board  of  the 
city  of  Acheron.  Others  present  took  the  part  of  the  superin- 
tendent and  strenuously  endeavored  to  persuade  the  school 
board  to  make  certain  changes  in  the  curriculum  of  the  public 
schools.  The  board  was  just  as  strenuously  opposed  to  any 
changes;  and  the  point  was  carried  only  after  the  superintendents 
had  summoned  to  their  command  all  the  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence available. 

On  Friday,  February  13,  Professor  Frank  M.  McMurry  ad- 
dressed the  club  on  "The  Responsibility  of  the  Superintendent  for 
Quality  of  Instruction."  Milbank  Chapel  was  filled,  and  the 
address  was  followed  by  an  hour  of  vigorous  discussion. 

A  large  contingent  of  members  of  the  club  attended  the  meet- 
ings of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  N.  E.  A.  at 
Cleveland,  February  21  to  27.  Past  and  present  members  were 
well  represented  on  the  program. 

On  Friday,  March  12,  the  club  cooperated  with  other  student 
organizations  in  arranging  a  meeting  to  be  addressed  by  Dr. 
Albert  E.  Winship,  editor  of  the  Journal  of  Education,  which 
proved  highly  profitable. 


ALUMNI  ACTIVITIES 


THE  ENDOWMENT  CAMPAIGN 

Following  the  suggestion  made  by  the  retiring  alumni  trustee, 
Commissioner  Milo  B.  Hillegas,  a  committee  of  Alumni  was 
appointed  at  Cleveland  to  determine  methods  of  participation  by 
Teachers  College  graduates  in  the  campaign  for  endowment. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  important  suggestions  which  came  to 
members  of  the  alumni  committee  was  that  the  Alumni  them- 
selves suggest  to  the  Trustees  a  larger  objective  than  the  Trustees 
had  fixed.  It  was  felt  that  while  other  institutions  of  learning  are 
asking  for  ten,  twelve,  or  fifteen  million  dollars  endowment, 
Teachers  College  ought  certainly  to  attempt  more  than  three 
million  dollars.  This  point  is  important  when  one  realizes  that 
approximately  only  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  expenses  of  the  College 
can  be  met  from  the  endowment  at  present  available.  The  com- 
mittee made,  therefore,  as  its  first  recommendation  the  suggestion 
that  we  organize  and  undertake  a  campaign  for  not  less  than  six 
million  dollars. 

The  committee  recommended,  in  the  second  place,  that  the 
primary  appeal  to  our  alumni  and  graduates  be  for  information 
and  assistance  rather  than  for  money.  Those  who  feel  able  to 
contribute  something  to  the  endowment  fund  will  have  the 
opportunity,  but  every  former  student  of  the  College  is  asked  to 
furnish  helpful  information  about  people  who  may  be  interested 
in  contributing  to  a  nationally  important  educational  institution. 
An  alumnus  might,  for  example,  report  that  Mr.  John  Smith, 
engaged  in  a  certain  business  in  his  locality,  is  greatly  interested 
in  Boy  Scout  work  and  may  possibly  be  persuaded  to  give  largely 
to  an  educational  institution  where  this  type  of  work  is  empha- 
sized. The  further  information  might  be  given  that  Mr.  Smith  is 
a  special  friend  of  Mr.  Jones,  who  in  turn  is  a  friend  of  a  certain 
member  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  Teachers  College.  With 
such  information  at  hand,  the  member  of  the  Board  of  Trustees 
might  seek  and  obtain  an  introduction  to  Mr.  Smith  and  possibly 
secure  a  large  subscription. 

1 88 


NEW  OFFICERS  OF  THE  ALUMNI  ASSOCIATION      189 

It  is  suggested  by  the  committee  that  a  responsible  administra- 
tive head  be  selected  to  conduct  this  campaign  among  the 
alumni,  and  that  sub-heads  throughout  the  United  States  be 
appointed  by  the  executive  in  general  charge.  Teachers  College 
clubs  throughout  the  country  could  contribute  extensively  to  the 
effectiveness  of  the  campaign  by  discussing  in  their  next  meetings 
possible  sources  of  revenue  in  their  own  local  communities.  All 
available  information  regarding  men  who  may  be  interested  in 
placing  their  wealth  at  the  service  of  the  educational  profession 
should  be  obtained;  such  as  what  newspapers  they  read,  what 
their  favorite  sports  are,  to  what  enterprises  they  have  con- 
tributed in  the  past,  through  what  sources  they  were  brought  to 
contribute  to  any  of  these  philanthropies,  to  what  community 
activities  they  contribute,  facts  which  might  give  us  a  basis  for 
deciding  how  to  make  an  approach  for  Teachers  College. 

Every  reader  of  the  RECORD  who  has  enjoyed  the  benefits  of 
even  one  summer  session  at  Teachers  College  should  make  this  a 
personal  matter  and  contribute,  at  once,  without  waiting  for 
further  invitation  or  urging  all  the  information  he  can  secure. 
Here  is  an  opportunity  for  you  to  prove  your  loyalty  to  the 
College  by  rendering  a  tremendous  service  at  very  slight  expense 
to  yourself.  If  you  have  suggestions  to  make,  write  to  Professor 
M.  R.  Trabue,  director  of  the  Bureau  of  Educational  Service. 

NEW  OFFICERS  OF  THE  ALUMNI  ASSOCIATION 

At  the  annual  business  meeting  of  the  Alumni  Council  of  the 
Teachers  College  Alumni  Association,  held  Friday,  February 
20,  the  election  of  the  following  new  officers  of  the  association  was 
announced:  First  vice-president,  Miss  Wilhelmina  Spohr,  pro- 
fessor of  household  arts,  Teachers  College;  second  vice-president, 
Mr.  J.  Cayce  Morrison,  superintendent  of  schools,  Leonia,  N.  J; 
treasurer,  Dr.  M.  R.  Trabue,  director  of  educational  service, 
Teachers  College;  recording  secretary,  Miss  Ethel  C.  Bratton, 
principal  of  elementary  department,  Ethical  Culture  School. 
Each  of  the  above  officers  is  elected  for  a  term  of  two  years 
beginning  March  I,  1920,  except  the  treasurer  whose  election 
is  for  a  term  of  one  year  beginning  March  I,  1920. 


190  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

DR.  GRAVES  ELECTED  ALUMNI  TRUSTEE 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Trustees  of  Teachers  College  held  on 
February  19  Dr.  Frank  P.  Graves,  dean  of  the  School  of  Educa- 
tion, University  of  Pennsylvania,  was  elected  alumni  trustee  for  a 
period  of  two  years  beginning  March  i.  Dr.  Graves  succeeds 
Dr.  Milo  B.  Hillegas,  commissioner  of  education  for  the  state  of 
Vermont. 

Dr.  Graves  is  a  graduate  of  Columbia  University,  having  re- 
ceived the  A.B.  degree  in  1890,  the  A.M.  degree  in  1891,  and  the 
Ph.D.  degree  in  1912.  He  also  received  the  honorary  degree  of 
Litt.D.  from  Heidelberg  (Ohio)  University  in  1897  and  the 
LL.D.  degree  from  Hanover  College  in  1897. 

Dr.  Graves  has  had  wide  professional  experience  in  univer- 
sities as  follows:  president,  University  of  Wyoming,  1896-1898; 
president,  University  of  Washington,  1898-1903;  professor  of 
history  of  education  and  acting  dean  (1906)  of  Teachers  College, 
University  of  Missouri,  1904-1907 ;  professor  of  history  of  educa- 
tion and  dean  of  Summer  Session,  Ohio  State  University,  1907— 
1913;  professor  of  history  of  education  and  dean  of  the  School  of 
Education,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1913 . 

Dr.  Graves  is  also  the  president  of  the  Society  of  College 
Teachers  of  Education  for  the  year  1920.  He  is  the  author  of 
the  following  publications:  Great  Educators  of  Three  Centuries, 
History  of  Education  in  Modern  Times,  Peter  Ramus  and  the 
Educational  Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  A  Student's 
History  of  Education. 

The  Alumni  Association  and  the  graduates  of  Teachers  College 
are  very  fortunate  in  having  such  an  able  representative  on  the 
Board  of  Trustees. 

ANNUAL  ALUMNI  CONFERENCES 

The  Annual  Reunion  and  Conferences  of  the  Alumni  Associa- 
tion of  Teachers  College  were  held  at  the  College  this  year  on 
Thursday,  Friday,  and  Saturday,  February  19-21.  The  first 
meeting  was  of  the  alumnae  of  the  nursing  and  health  department, 
which  celebrated  on  Thursday  afternoon,  February  19,  its  twen- 
tieth anniversary.  This  celebration  included  addresses  by  Dean 
James  E.  Russell,  Dr.  C.  E.  A.  Winslow,  of  Yale  University,  and 


ANNUAL  ALUMNI  CONFERENCES  191 

Miss  Lillian  D.  Wald,  of  the  Henry  Street  Nurses'  Settlement, 
with  a  report  by  Miss  Sara  Parsons,  of  Boston,  on  the  "Services  of 
the  Department  to  Training  Schools  and  Hospitals."  This  group 
of  alumnae  continued  its  meetings  throughout  Friday  and  Sat- 
urday with  much  enthusiasm  and  interest. 

A  splendid  audience  was  present  on  Friday  morning  at  the 
meeting  of  the  Administration  and  College  Teachers  of  Educa- 
tion Section.  The  discussion  in  this  meeting  was  opened  by 
Superintendent  Fred.  M.  Hunter,  of  Oakland,  Calif.,  and  Super- 
intendent Frank  V.  Thompson,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  and  dealt  with 
the  degree  to  which  classroom  teachers  might  be  allowed  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  administration  of  public  school  systems.  There 
seemed  to  be  general  agreement  that  teachers  should  be  allowed  a 
considerable  voice  in  school  affairs,  but  the  different  types  of 
machinery  for  putting  these  policies  into  effect  varied  quite 
widely. 

The  Secondary  Education  Section,  on  Friday  afternoon,  was 
of  special  interest  on  account  of  the  emphasis  placed  by  the 
different  speakers  on  the  idea  that  the  training  of  a  high  school 
principal  should  be  very  definitely  and  distinctly  for  that  par- 
ticular job.  The  idea  of  training  a  man  for  general  school  adminis- 
tration and  then  placing  him,  as  a  school  superintendent  if  he  does 
first  class  work,  as  a  high  school  principal  if  his  work  is  second 
rate,  and  as  an  elementary  school  principal  if  his  ability  seems  to 
be  third  rate,  appears  to  have  been  pretty  thoroughly  discarded, 
at  least  by  the  secondary  school  administrators. 

The  first  general  alumni  conference,  held  on  Friday  afternoon, 
preceding  Dean  Russell's  reception  to  the  alumni,  was  addressed 
by  Professor  Frederick  G.  Bonser  on  "The  New  Status  of  Prac- 
tical Arts  Subjects  in  the  Problem  of  Education"  and  by  Professor 
Paul  Monroe  on  "Review  and  Prospect  in  the  School  of  Educa- 
tion." An  unusually  large  number  of  the  alumni  was  present  to 
enjoy  this  excellent  program. 

The  Horace  Mann  Auditorium  was  filled  Friday  evening  for 
the  second  general  alumni  meeting.  The  program  for  this  meet- 
ing had  been  arranged  by  the  Lower  Primary  Education  Section 
and  the  Rural  Education  Section.  Professor  E.  L.  Thorndike 
gave  a  very  interesting  talk  on  the  "Measurement  of  the  Intellect 
of  Children  from  4  to  8  Years  of  Age,"  illustrated  with  samples  of 


192  TEACHERS   COLLEGE   RECORD 

the  group  tests  now  available  for  use  with  children  and  illiterate 
adults.  President  George  H.  Vincent,  of  the  Rockefeller  Foun- 
dation, then  gave  in  his  usual,  brilliant  style  an  address  on 
"Public  Health  in  Rural  Communities." 

The  Saturday  morning  sectional  conferences  were  very  well 
attended  and  very  much  worth  while.  More  than  usual  interest 
was  shown  in  the  combined  meeting  of  the  Elementary  Education 
and  Lower  Primary  Education  Sections.  Mr.  Robert  E.  Wolf, 
a  consulting  engineer  of  national  reputation  in  the  industrial 
world,  spoke  on  "Control  and  Consent — A  Discussion  of  Instruc- 
tion, Initiative,  and  Individualism  in  Industry."  Professor 
Bonser  followed  with  a  splendid  paper  showing  the  implications 
of  these  experiments  in  industry  to  the  problems  of  elementary 
education.  Professor  Frank  M.  McMurry  closed  the  formal  part 
of  the  program  with  a  much  needed  discussion  of  "A  Teaching 
Technique  Adjusted  to  the  Project  Method." 

Following  the  sectional  luncheons  at  noon  on  Saturday,  the 
third  general  alumni  conference  was  held  in  the  Horace  Mann 
Auditorium,  before  a  thoroughly  loyal  but  unfortunately  small 
group  of  the  alumni.  The  president,  Miss  Roxanna  A.  Steele, 
reviewed  the  work  of  the  Association  for  the  year  and  called 
attention  to  the  increased  possibilities  of  alumni  activities  result- 
ing from  the  establishment  of  the  Bureau  of  Educational  Service. 
The  retiring  alumni  trustee,  Commissioner  Milo  B.  Hillegas,  and 
Dean  Russell  each  spoke  of  the  critical  situation  in  which  Teach- 
ers College  now  finds  itself.  Dean  Russell  emphasized  the 
opportunity  of  the  College  for  increased  service  to  the  profession 
in  the  years  to  come,  while  Professor  Hillegas  put  special  emphasis 
upon  the  unusual  opportunity  which  is  at  hand  for  the  Teachers 
College  Alumni  to  repay  the  institution  for  some  of  the  benefits 
they  have  derived  from  it.  He  suggested  that  although  the 
members  of  the  Teachers  College  alumni  body  might  not  be  in 
financial  circumstances  which  would  enable  them  to  contribute 
money  to  the  institution  in  any  large  degree,  it  was,  nevertheless, 
possible  for  them  to  furnish  information  and  assistance  to  the 
Trustees  in  the  discovery  of  sources  from  which  large  financial 
contributions  might  be  obtained.  It  is  hoped  by  members  of  the 
executive  committee  that  every  alumnus  will  contribute  such 
information  and  assistance  at  once. 


TEACHERS  COLLEGE  DINNER  IN  CLEVELAND        193 

ANNUAL  TEACHERS  COLLEGE  FESTIVAL 

An  unusual  amount  of  interest  was  aroused  this  year  by  the 
Teachers  College  Festival,  which  was  held  on  Thursday  and 
Saturday  evenings,  February  19  and  21,  during  the  week  of  the 
Alumni  Conferences.  This  was  the  seventh  year  of  the  Festival,  the 
fame  of  which  seems  to  have  spread  far  beyond  the  limits  of  Teachers 
College  and  its  alumni.  All  tickets  were  sold  and  standing  room 
was  at  a  premium  for  a  week  before  the  first  performance. 

"The  Spirit  of  the  East"  was  a  very  appropriate  title  for  the 
performance  this  year,  which  opened  with  three  episodes  of  the 
East,  gotten  up  and  produced  by  some  of  our  own  foreign  students 
in  native  costume,  with  accompanying  Oriental  music.  These 
three  pictures — a  bit  of  home  life  from  Japan,  a  Hindu  wedding 
ceremony  from  India,  and  a  symbolic  pantomime  of  China  (Old 
and  New) — were  an  interesting  contrast  to  the  imaginative  inter- 
pretation of  the  Orient  by  our  native  American  students  which 
followed.  This  part  of  the  program  consisted  of  a  romantic 
pantomime,  full  of  color  and  movement,  with  symbolic  dancing 
and  interpretative  music  to  add  atmosphere. 

The  usual  academic  procession  of  the  seniors  was  this  year  for 
the  first  time  led  by  the  "College  Spirit."  Miss  Marion  Knighton, 
of  the  physical  education  department,  represented  "College 
Spirit,"  having  been  chosen  for  this  office  by  popular  vote.  An- 
other feature  of  the  program  this  year  was  a  series  of  contests  at 
the  very  beginning  of  the  performance,  which  brought  in  some 
new  elements  of  undergraduate  rivalry  and  merrymaking.  The 
freshmen  carried  away  the  honors  in  this  part  of  the  program. 
Refreshments  were  served  and  merrymaking  by  both  participants 
and  audience  began  immediately  after  the  Grand  Finale. 

A  large  measure  of  the  success  of  this  year's  performance  must 
be  credited  to  Miss  Belle  Northrup,  instructor  in  fine  arts,  under 
whose  direction  both  students  and  faculty  cooperated  for  the 
success  of  the  festival. 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE  DINNER  IN  CLEVELAND 

At  the  Teachers  College  dinner,  held  on  the  evening  of  Febru- 
ary 24  at  the  Statler  Hotel  in  Cleveland  during  the  meeting  of  the 
Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 


194  TEACHERS    COLLEGE    RECORD 

elation,  seven  hundred  and  fifty  Teachers  College  alumni  were 
present.  The  big  dining-hall  was  overtaxed,  and  many  loyal 
Teachers  College  folk  had  to  be  accommodated  in  adjoining  rooms. 
When  the  dinner  had  ended  and  the  tables  had  been  removed,  all 
who  could  crowd  into  the  dining-hall  did  so,  while  the  rest 
flocked  to  the  balcony  to  enjoy  the  program. 

From  the  center  of  the  long  table  on  the  dais,  Dr.  Charles  B. 
Keyes,  president  of  the  Skidmore  School  of  Arts,  seventy  years 
young  and  primed  for  the  occasion,  conscripted  the  speakers  at 
either  side  of  him  with  rare  cleverness. 

"White  Hope"  Jesse  B.  Newlon,  superintendent  of  schools, 
Lincoln,  Neb.,  told  how  the  spirit  of  Teachers  College  had  en- 
abled him  so  to  impress  his  people  in  Lincoln  with  the  gravity  of 
educational  conditions  that  they  had  even  anticipated  state  legis- 
lation in  order  to  pay  teachers  a  living  wage. 

Miss  Mary  Pennell,  primary  supervisor  of  schools  in  Kansas 
City,  reviewed  wittily  the  principles  which  Teachers  College 
alumni  carry  with  them  into  the  educational  field.  Her  remarks 
were  followed  by  one  of  the  most  brilliant  mixtures  of  satire  and 
seriousness  that  has  ever  emanated  from  a  Teachers  College  ban- 
quet table.  Superintendent  Geoffrey  F.  Morgan,  of  Athens, 
Ohio,  in  a  spirit  of  exquisite  drollery  held  a  curved  mirror  before 
the  College  faculty,  to  the  uproarious  delight  of  the  alumni. 
Suddenly  he  turned  upon  the  alumni  body  and  issued  a  challenge 
so  vital  and  impressive  that  every  heart  was  imbued  with  new 
courage  and  deeper  resolution. 

Commissioner  Milo  B.  Hillegas,  of  Vermont,  retiring  alumni 
trustee,  made  a  farewell  address  in  which  he  appealed  to  the 
loyalty  of  every  alumnus  to  uphold  the  principles  and  work  of 
Teachers  College.  Dean  Russell  followed  with  a  review  of  the 
financial  and  educational  situation  in  which  Teachers  College 
finds  itself.  His  description  of  the  unselfish  devotion  of  members 
of  the  faculty  to  the  interests  of  the  college  and  the  profession 
brought  to  the  heart  of  every  alumnus  present  the  resolve  to 
work  as  never  before  for  the  success  of  education  as  a  profession 
and  particularly  of  Teachers  College  as  a  source  of  professional 
training. 

Greetings  were  exchanged  with  the  University  of  Chicago 
Alumni  who  were  holding  their  annual  dinner  at  the  same  time 


DR.  OBRIEN  S  HIGH  SCHOOL  FAILURES  195 

and  in  the  same  hotel.  Professor  Otis  W.  Caldwell  acted  as  repre- 
sentative of  Teachers  College,  while  Professor  Frank  N.  Freeman 
was  the  representative  of  the  University  of  Chicago. 

Professor  E.  K.  Fretwell  led  in  a  series  of  cheers  and  songs  which 
interspersed  the  courses  and  addresses,  and  seasoned  both  with  a 
spirit  of  youth  and  devotion.  The  alumni  unanimously  pledged 
their  moral  and  financial  support  to  their  professional  alma  mater 
in  this  crucial  moment.  Devotion  to  education  and  dedication 
to  service  were  the  keynotes  of  the  program ;  and  never  have  the 
alumni  of  Teachers  College  gone  back  to  their  work  with  a  higher 
resolve  or  happier  memories. 

TOLEDO  TEACHERS  COLLEGE  CLUB 

On  Saturday,  February  28,  sixty  members  of  the  Toledo  branch 
of  the  Teachers  College  Alumni  Association  gave  a  dinner  at  the 
Woman's  Building.  Dean  James  E.  Russell  was  the  speaker  of 
the  evening.  Other  guests  of  honor  were  Mrs.  James  E.  Russell, 
Professor  and  Mrs.  Charles  Russell,  Dr.  and  Mrs.  W.  B.  Guitteau, 
and  Dr.  George  Johnson.  Short  after-dinner  talks  were  given  by 
Professor  Russell,  Dr.  A.  M:  Stowe,  and  Professor  D.  W.  Henry, 
of  Toledo  University. 

The  places  were  marked  by  effective  dinner  cards,  the  work  of 
Miss  Mary  McKinnon,  a  former  student  of  Teachers  College. 

DR.  OBRIEN'S  STUDY  OF  HIGH  SCHOOL  FAILURES 

A  study  of  the  failures  of  high  school  pupils,  a  recent  disserta- 
tion by  Dr.  Francis  P.  OBrien  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Publi- 
cations as  No.  102  of  the  Teachers  College  Contributions  to 
Education,  traces  the  records  of  more  than  6,000  students  from 
the  time  they  enter  high  school  to  the  time  they  either  drop  out 
or  graduate.  The  pupils  studied  were  found  in  the  classes  of  eight 
different  high  schools  of  New  Jersey  and  New  York.  Only  public, 
coeducational  schools  with  complete  cumulative  records  were 
selected  for  the  study. 

The  facts  recorded  were  studied  in  considerable  detail  regard- 
ing the  failures  in  academic  and  commercial  subjects  as  they 
pertained  to  time,  number,  age,  subjects,  graduation,  repetition 


196  TEACHERS    COLLEGE    RECORD 

and  remedies,  and  they  are  reported  separately  for  boys  and  girls, 
under  the  chapter  headings:  How  extensive  are  the  failures? 
What  basis  is  discoverable  for  a  prognosis  of  failure?  How  much 
is  graduation  or  continuance  in  school  conditioned  by  the  occur- 
rence of  failures  or  by  their  numbers?  Are  the  school  agencies 
employed  in  remedying  the  failures  adequate  for  the  purpose? 
Do  the  failures  represent  a  lack  of  capability  or  fitness  on  the 
part  of  the  failing  pupils?  There  is  also  a  final  chapter  in  which 
the  author  suggests  some  of  the  probable  educational  impli- 
cations of  the  facts  disclosed,  but  it  is  less  an  integral  part  of  the 
study  than  an  attempt  to  give  more  of  meaning  and  interpreta- 
tion to  the  statistical  facts,  especially  for  the  type  of  reader  who 
is  so  often  confused  or  repelled  by  tables  of  cold  statistics. 

In  the  whole  study  there  is  no  statistical  feature  employed  that 
is  more  difficult  than  distribution  tables  and  simple  percentages. 
The  initial  chapter  states  the  purpose  of  the  study,  the  meaning 
of  the  term  'failure',  the  sources  and  extent  of  the  data  employed, 
and  the  classifications  or  arbitrary  decisions  made  for  the 
handling  of  the  data.  Each  chapter  is  followed  by  its  own  concise 
summary.  This  feature  is  intended  to  relieve  the  oft-repeated 
criticism  that  the  average  teacher  finds  research  studies  of  little 
direct  value  because  they  are  too  technical  or  involved  to  make 
much  of  an  appeal  to  any  but  the  student  of  research. 

Some  very  interesting  and  significant  disclosures  are  made  in 
this  study,  for  Dr.  OBrien  finds  that  the  percentages  of  the 
graduating  and  of  the  non-graduating  pupils  who  have  failed 
one  or  more  times  are  almost  identical;  and  that  of  the  failing 
and  the  non-failing  pupils,  the  same  percentage  of  each  finally 
graduates.  According  to  the  records  of  the  schools  studied,  the 
non-failing  students  drop  out  much  earlier  than  do  those  of  the 
failing  group.  Even  as  the  number  of  failures  per  pupil  increases, 
his  chances  of  graduating  are  not  impaired,  and  the  extension  of 
time  required  by  him  is  slight.  The  younger  pupils  at  entrance 
are  distinctly  more  successful  than  those  older  in  years.  Certain 
subjects  are  found  to  be  especially  fruitful  of  failures.  It  is 
made  evident  that  much  valuable  time  is  wasted  in  the  great 
number  of  subject  repetitions.  It  is  found  that  the  percentages 
of  failure  by  semesters  do  not  show  a  decrease  with  the  longer 
time  period  in  school,  but  the  reverse  is  found  for  the  semesters 


RECENT  ALUMNI  APPOINTMENTS  197 

up  to  the  seventh.  Thus  by  their  own  official  records  the  schools 
appear  to  have  been  put  more  on  the  defensive  than  have  the 
pupils  who  have  failed. 

RECENT  ALUMNI  APPOINTMENTS 

The   following  recent   appointments   are   announced   by  the 
Bureau  of  Educational  Service  of  Teachers  College. 

ARBOGAST,  GERTRUDE,  instructor  in  domestic  art,  University  of  Wisconsin, 
Madison,  Wis. 

ARMENTROUT,  W.  D.,  principal  of  Junior  High  School,  Lawrence,  Kan. 

AVER,   GLENNA,   instructor  in  domestic  science,   Atlantic   City  Vocational 
School,  N.  J. 

AVERY,  EDNA  I.,  associate  professor  of  household  arts,  Washington  State  Col- 
lege, Pullman,  Wash. 

BARBER,  GENEVIEVE,  instructor  in  physical  education,  Community  School, 
Short  Hills,  N.  J. 

BEECHER,  EMILY  S.,  supervisor  of  industrial  arts,  public  schools,  Seattle, 

Wash. 

BELTING,  PAUL  E.,  assistant  professor  of  secondary  education,  University  of 
Illinois,  Urbana,  111. 

BENNETT,  BERTHA,  head  of  department  of  physical  education,  State  Manual 
Training  Normal,  Pittsburgh,  Kan. 

BENNETT,  IDA  M.,  assistant  supervisor  of  practice,  State  Normal  School, 
Trenton,  N.  J. 

BENNETT,  VIRGINIA  C.,  instructor  in  physical  education,  The  Lincoln  School, 
New  York  City. 

BRINTON,  GRACE,  instructor  in  domestic  science,  Bradley  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute, Peoria,  111. 

BROMLEY,  ANNA  O.,  instructor  in  psychology,  State  Normal  School,  Trenton, 
N.  J. 

BUCK,  BEATRICE,  instructor  in  physical  education,  Summit  School,  St.  Paul, 

Minn. 
BUSSE,  FLORENCE,  head  of  foods  department,  Iowa  Agriculture  College,  Ames, 

Iowa. 

BEECH,  MARY  L.,  instructor  in  English,  High  School,  Lakewood,  N.  J. 
CAMPBELL,   BLANCHE,  elementary  supervisor,  public  schools,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

CAMPBELL,  HARRIET,  critic  in  Junior  High  School,  Sam  Houston  Normal 
Institute,  Huntsville,  Tex. 


198  TEACHERS    COLLEGE    RECORD 

CHAPLIN,  EUNICE,  instructor  in  domestic  science,  High  School,  Durham,  N.  C. 

CHAPLIN,  ARDENIA,  instructor  in  domestic  art,  College  of  Industrial  Arts, 

Denton,  Tex. 
CHAPPELL,   CLEO,   head   of  geography  department,   State   Normal   School, 

Trenton,  N.  J. 

CLEAVER,  W.  G.,  instructor  in  educational  psychology  and  pedagogy,  State 
Normal  School,  East  Stroudsburg,  Pa. 

COOK,  SHERMAN  R.,  superintendent  of  machine  shops,  Robert  College,  Con- 
stantinople, Turkey. 

CONDHEY,  Lucius,  head  of  manual  training  department,  High  School,  Dover, 

Del. 
CRAIG,  GERALD,  instructor  in  mathematics  and  science,  Oak  Lane  Country 

Day  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

CRANE,  EDITH  ADELAIDE,  in  charge  of  an  orphanage,  Armenian-Syrian  Relief, 
Turkey. 

CRANOR,  KATHERINE,  professor  of  home  economics,  James  Millikin  Univer- 
sity, Decatur,  111. 

CUMMINS,  ROBERT,  director  of  teacher-training,  State  Normal  School,  Nat- 
chitoches,  La. 

CURRIER,  MILDRED,  instructor  in  physical  education,  State  Normal  School, 
Natchitoches,  La. 

DALGLIESH  ALICE,  first  grade  teacher,  The  Lymann  School,  Ardmore,  Pa. 

DAVIS,  MARY  D.,  supervisor  of  kindergarten  and  primary  grades,  Public  Schools, 
Duluth,  Minn. 

DAVIS,  SHELDON  E.,  president  of  State  Normal  School,  Dillon,  Mont. 

DEMAREST,  IRVING  C.,  head  of  Latin  department,  Westport  High  School, 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 

DEVER,  MARY  M.,  instructor  in  physical  education,  University  of  Washington, 
Seattle,  Wash. 

DOUGAL,   MARGARET,   P.,  instructor  in  French,   High  School,    Bridgeport, 
Conn. 

ELLIOTT,  RUTH  M.,  instructor  in  fine  arts,  High  School,  San  Antonio,  Tex. 

EARHART,  LIDA  B.,  professor  of  elementary  education,  University  of  Nebraska, 
Lincoln,  Neb. 

FAULKNER,  ELIZABETH,  assistant  professor  of  English,  University  of  Kansas, 
Lawrence,  Kan. 

GIFFORD,  WALTER  J.,  head  of  department  of  education,  State  Normal  School, 
Harrisonburg,  Va. 

GRAY,  ANNIE  B.,  instructor  in  industrial  arts,  private  school,  Scranton,  Pa. 


RECENT  ALUMNI  APPOINTMENTS  199 

HAINES,  EDNA  E.f  supervisor  of  kindergarten  training,  West  Texas  State  Nor- 
mal School,  Canyon,  Tex. 

HAMILTON,  F.  R.,  president  of  Marshall  College,  Huntington,  W.  Va. 

HANCKEL,  MARION  S.,  kindergarten-primary  supervisor,  Public  Schools,  Rich- 
mond, Va. 

HAROUNIAN,  FRANK  J.,  instructor  in  French  and  Spanish,  Western  Military 
Academy,  Alton,  111. 

HARRIS,  MAUDE  L.,  instructor  in  English,  State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Mass. 

HARRISON,  FLORENCE,  director  of  home  economics,  State  College,  Pullman, 

Wash. 
HERSHEY,  EDYTHE,  extension  work  in  domestic  science,  University  of  Texas, 

Austin,  Tex. 
HOLDEN,  BERTHA,  state  extension  staff,  University  of  Vermont,  Burlington, 

Vt. 
HOTCHKISS,  E.  A.,  director  of  training  school,  Colorado  State  Teachers  College, 

Greeley,  Col. 
HUBBARD,  JULIA  M.,  supervising  critic,  State  Normal  School,  Winona,  Minn. 

INKS,   EDITH,   instructor  in  mathematics,  Arsenal  Technical  High  School, 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

JAMES,  LORETTA,  head  of  department  of  domestic  science,  State  Normal 
School,  Trenton,  N.  J. 

KERN,  FRANCES,  supervisor  of  kindergarten  and  primary  department,  State 
Normal  School,  Willimantic,  Conn. 

LA  GANKE,  FLORENCE  M.,  director  of  home  economics,  public  schools,  Oak- 
land, Cal. 

LANGNER,  HENRIETTA  M.,  instructor  in  home  furnishing,  North  Carolina 
College  for  Women,  Greensboro,  N.  C. 

LAWTON,  WILHELMENIA,  instructor  in  household  arts,  State  College,  Pa. 

McNALLY,   FRANCES   M.,   instructor  in   home  economics,   Normal   School, 
Stratford,  Ontario,  Canada. 

McGuiRE,  GRACE  A.,  instructor  in  domestic  science,  State  Normal  School, 
Harrisonburg,  Va. 

McNEAL,  WYLLE  B.,  state  supervisor  of  home  economics  education,  St.  Paul, 
Minn. 

MEDLAR,  REBA  M.,  instructor  in  French,  High  School,  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

MESEROLL,  SARAH,  supervisor  of  kindergarten  and  elementary  grades,  public 
schools,  Cortland,  N.  Y. 

MILLER,    NORMA    M.,    instructor   in   household   management,    St.   Andrews 
Priory  School,  Honolulu,  T.  H. 


200  TEACHERS    COLLEGE    RECORD 

NAYLOR,  JANE,  supervisor  of  primary  grades,  public  schools,  Harford  County, 
Md. 

O'NEALE,  LILA  M.,  assistant  professor  of  domestic  art,  State  Agricultural 
College,  Corvallis,  Ore. 

O'NEILL,  HAROLD  H.,  instructor  in  French,  Montgomery  School,  Wynnewood, 
Pa. 

OSLER,  FLORENCE,  manager  of  tea  room,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

POTTER,  SARAH  E.,  director  of  dormitory  and  cafeteria,  Bradley  Polytechnic 
Institute,  Peoria,  111. 

RAYNOR,  ANNE  W.,  head  of  modern  language  department,  Trinity  Univer- 
sity, Waxahachie,  Tex. 

REIGART,  CATHERINE  M.,  instructor  in  English,  American  College  for  Women, 
Constantinople,  Turkey. 

ROBINSON,  WILLIAM  M.,  principal  of  village  school,  Orleans,  Vt. 

ROBSON,  HELEN,  instructor  in  domestic  art,  State  College,  Pullman,  Wash. 

SALE,  ANNIE  E.,  instructor  and  manager  of  practice  house,  Industrial  Institute 
and  College,  Columbus,  Miss. 

SALE,  SARAH  F.,  instructor  and  manager  of  practice  house,  Industrial  Institute 
and  College,  Columbus,  Miss. 

SAUNDERS,  AGNES,  instructor  in  home  economics,  State  Normal  Manual  Train- 
ing School,  Pittsburgh,  Kan. 

SAXMAN,   ETHEL,   instructor  in  physical  education,   State   Normal  School, 
Springfield,  Mo. 

SEALOCK,  W.  C.,  head  of  department  of  history  of  education,  University  of 
Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

SIMMONS,   NELLIA  A.,  instructor  in  home  economics,   Indiana  University, 
Bloomington,  Ind. 

SMITH,  ELVIRA  T.,  instructor  in  domestic  art,  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia, 
Pa. 

THOMPSON,  ALTA,  grade  teacher,  Lenox  School,  New  York  City. 

TUTTLE,  MARGARET,  instructor  in  physical  education,  State  Normal,  Man- 
kato,  Minn. 

WOODY,  WALTER  T.,  assistant  professor  of  history  of  education,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

WILSON,  SARAH  M.,  instructor  in  home  economics,  State  Normal  School,  Har- 
risonburg,  Va. 


AD  VERTISEMENTS 


BEST  BY  TEST 

THE  HORACE  MANN  READERS 
at  Los  Angeles 

Is  there  a  scientific  way  to  tell  good  readers? 

There  is. 

Ten  series  of  readers  were  divided  amongst  121  Los  Angeles 
schools.  After  a  year's  trial  Horace  Mann  Readers  ranked  first 
as  to  satisfactory  service  by  a  vote  of  the  teachers  themselves. 
They  led  the  list  on  merit. 

Horace  Mann  Readers  make  children  think;  help  them  to 
help  themselves;  and  develop  resourcefulness  in  life  as  well  as 
independence  and  power  in  reading.  Thoroughly  American  in 
content  and  purpose.  Widely  adopted.  Readers  for  every 
grade.  Manuals  for  the  teacher.  Circular  describing  the 
method  sent  upon  request. 

LONGMANS,  GREEN  &  CO.,  Publishers 
New  York,  449  Fourth  Avenue      Chicago,  2457  Prairie  Avenue 


Keeping  Up  With  the  Profession 

AT  EDUCATIONAL  CONFERENCES  someone  always  makes  a  speech 
about  the  problem  of  the  teacher  in  keeping  up  to  date  in  his 
educational  ideas  and  practice.  Teachers,  we  find,  are  always 
glad  to  be  informed  of  recent  books  that  will  help  them  in  their 
practice.  They  sacrifice  much  in  time  and  money  in  "continuing 
their  education"  after  hours.  Teachers  are  professionally  alive. 

Here  is  a  list  of  most  helpful  books — books  for  all  educators. 
The  titles  are  descriptive. 

CLOW:    Principles  of  Educational  Sociology  ....  $1.80 

DAVIS:    The  Work  of  the  Teacher 1.60 

FINNEY  AND  ScHAFER:    The  Administration  of  Vil- 
lage and  Consolidated  Schools 1.60 

FREELAND:    Modern  Elementary  School  Practice      .  1.80 

MCMURRY:    Teaching  By  Projects 1.32 

MUNROE:    The  Human  Factor  in  Education  ....  1.60 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  BOSTON  CHICAGO  ATLANTA  DALLAS  SAN  FRANCISCO 


AD  VERTISEMENTS 


DYNAMIC    PSYCHOLOGY 

By  Robert  Sessions  Wood  worth,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Psychology,  Columbia  University 
Cloth  12mo,  pp.  ix  +  210  Price,  $1.50  net 

ECENT  contributions  to  abnormal,  social  and  animal  psychology  have 
brought  in  a  number  of  new  and  important  considerations  especially  relat- 
ing to  the  motivation  of  conduct  and  to  the  proper  conceptions  of  psychology. 
The  author  here  attempts  some  constructive  criticism  of  these  new  ideas. 
While  pointing  out  defects  in  the  psychology  of  the  Behaviorists,  the  Psycho- 
analysts and  the  Social  Psychologists,  he  finds  it  possible  to  utilize  their  concep- 
tions along  with  the  psychology  of  the  more  standard  type,  toward  an  under- 
standing of  human  conduct.  The  volume  is,  accordingly,  a  brief  survey  of  the 
most  interesting  recent  developments  in  psychology,  and  is  recommended  to 
teachers  for  use  as  additional  reading  in  courses  in  this  subject. 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

LEMCKE  &  BUECHNER,  Agent* 
30-32  EAST  20th  STREET,  NEW  YORK  CITY 


THE  ENGLISH  JOURNAL 

JAMES  FLEMING  Hosic,  Editor 
Organ  of  the  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English 


POETRY  AND  FREEDOM Edwin  L.  Miller 

SALVAGING  FROM  THE  SCRAP  HEAP J.  C.  Tressler 

MAKING  OF  A  MODERN  MINNESINGER Bertha  Forbes  Herring 

SUPERVISED  STUDY      Katherine  Morse 

AN  UNFENCED  CORNER  OF  THE  SPELLING  FIELD John  A.  Lester 

Special  Departments:    The  Round  Table,  Editorial,  News  and  Notes,  Digest 
of  Periodical  Literature,  Book  Reviews,  and  Book  Notices. 

The  ENGLISH  JOURNAL  appears  monthly  during  the  school  year.     Annual 
subscription  $2.50.    Single  copy,  30  cents.    Address: 

THE  ENGLISH  JOURNAL 

68TH  STREET  AND  STEWART  AVENUE  CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


A  D  VER  TISEMENTS 


TESTS  AND  SCALES 


ARITHMETIC 

Woody  Scales 
Stone  Tests 

DRAWING 

Thorndike  Scale 

ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

Hillegas  Scale 

Thorndike  Extension  of  the  Hille- 
gas Scale 

Nassau  County  Supplement  to 
the  Hillegas  Scale 

HANDWRITING 

Thorndike  Scale 
HISTORY 
Van  Wagenen 


INTELLIGENCE 

Thorndike  Examinations 

LANGUAGE 

Trabue  Scales 

HIGH  SCHOOL  MATHEMATICS 

Hotz  Scales 
Rogers  Tests 

POETRY 

Trabue-Abbott  Scales 

READING 

Thorndike  Vocabulary  Scales 
Thorndike  Scale  for  Understand- 
ing of  Sentences 
SEWING 

Murdoch  Scale 


For  complete  price  list  of  scales  and  their  accompanying  references  address 
BUREAU  OF  PUBLICATIONS,  TEACHERS  COLLEGE 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


An  important  book  on  a  subject  of  vital  importance  to  every  teacher 

Decoration  of  the  School  and  Home 

By  THEODORE  M.  DILL  AWAY,  Director  of  Manual  Arts,  Boston 


Here  is  a  book  that  shows  what  a  schoolroom  may  be  made  by  the  intelligent  selection  and 
artistic  arrangement  of  its  decorations. 

Mr.  Dillaway  has  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  this  neglected  phase  of  education.  In  this  book 
he  points  out  clearly  common  faults  found  in  the  average  school  arrangement,  and  then  by  text 
and  illustrations  of  re-arrangement  shows  how  these  same  schools  may  be  made  to  reflect  true 
artistic  quality. 

The  text  of  this  book  sets  forth  comprehensively  the  proper  selection  and  arrangement  of 
statuary,  pictures,  busts,  bas-reliefs,  prints  in  color  and  sepia,  Japanese  prints  and  vase  forms, 
with  a  complete  list  of  these  decorations,  showing  just  which  are  best  co-related  to  the  curriculum 
of  each  grade. 

Profusely  illustrated  with  colored  plates  and  half-tone  reproductions.  Beautifully  printed 
and  bound. 

Price,  postpaid,  $2.00.     Send  for  illustrated  circular. 


MILTON  BRADLEY  COMPANY 

SPRINGFIELD  MASSACHUSETTS 

BOSTON      NEW  YORK      PHILADELPHIA      ATLANTA      SAN  FRANCISCO 


A  OVER  TI  SEMEN  TS 


The  World  Book 

Organized  Knowledge  in  Story  and 
Picture  in  10  Volumes 

Editor-in-chief,  Professor  M.  V.  O'SHEA, 
University  of  Wisconsin. 

A  successful  reference  set,  in  simple  lan- 
guage, covering  all  elementary  and  high 
school  work. 

Written  by  real  authorities. 

Recommended  by  the  American  Library 
Association  as  'the  best  of  its  type.' 

Officially  approved  by  eighteen  State  De- 
partments of  Education. 

1920  Edition  just  off  the  Press 

THE  WORLD  BOOK  is  the  only  reference  work 
suitable  for  elementary  school  use  which 
gives  a  satisfactory  treatment  on  all  sub- 
jects in  the  light  of  changes  brought  about 
by  the  World  War  and  Treaty  of  Versailles. 

Write  for  sample  pages  and  terms. 

W.  F.  QUARRIE  &  CO. 

104  S.  MICH.  AV.,  CHICAGO 
Dept.  M 


The  Strayer-Englehart 

Score  Cards 

for  School  Buildings 

1920  Editions 

For  City  Schools: 

Score  Card  ......   10  cents 

Bulletin     giving     detail 

and  standards     ...  50  cents 

For  Rural  Schools  (i  to  4  teachers) 

Score  Card 10  cents 

Bulletin     giving     detail 
and  standards     ...  35  cents 

Published  by 

Bureau  of  Publications 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE 

Columbia  University 

NEW  YORK  CITY 


FORTIETH  YEAR,  SEPTEMBER,  1919 

"EDUCATION" 

$3.00  A  YEAR     35  CENTS  PER  NUMBER 

The    oldest    high-class    monthly    educational 
magazine  in  the  United  States 

SAMPLE  TESTIMONIALS 

"Enclosed  find  check  for  renewal  of  Education, 
the  39th  remittance  without  a  skip — being  one 
of  Bicknell's  charter  members  in  1879." — Homer 
H.  Seerley,  President  Iowa  State  Teachers' 
College. 

"Education  is  appreciated  everywhere." — Geo. 
E.  Walk,  Lecturer  on  Education,  N.  Y.  Uni- 
versity. 

"As  necessary  to  a  teacher  as  a  medical  journal 
to  a  physician." — M.  T.  Pritchard,  Master 
Everett  School,  Boston. 

"Of  greatest  value  to  all  who  are  trying  to 
formulate  an  educational  theory." — President 
Faunce,  Brown  University,  R.  I. 

YOUR  MAGAZINE  LIST ! 

(LOWEST  CLUBBING  RATES) 

Please  order  all  your  magazines  through  us. 
It  will  save  writing  a  lot  of  letters  to  separate 
publishers.  Our  motto  is  "Any  Magazine 
Sent  Anywhere."  With  forty  years  of  history 
to  its  credit  EDUCATION  commands  the 
confidence  of  the  school  world.  We  place  our 
reputation  behind  all '  orders  and  guarantee 
satisfaction. 

THE  PALMER  COMPANY 

120  Boylston  Street  Boston,  Mass. 


Some  Sugar-Saving  Sweets 
for  Every  Day 

57  Sugarless  Recipes 

That  are  Tested,  Palatable, 

and  Economical 

for 
Cakes,  Puddings,  Jellies 

Price,  10  cents 

Complete  list  of  practical  arts 

bulletins  will  be  sent  on 

request 

Bureau  of  Publications 

Teachers  College 
Columbia  University     New  York 


»*~S9     CCNTS 

DU 


NOV/4    1932 
C--» 


AP»/3  1939 

m.  as  1 


03644 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


